Wines, the most delicious in the city, shall be thy drink. A royal palace shall be thy dwelling-a throne of state thy seat. Magician and conjuror shall kiss the hem of thy garment.' "Ninkigal opened her mouth and spake; to her messenger Namtar, command she gave: 'Go, Namtar, the temple of justice adorn! Deck the images! Deck the altars! Bring out Anunnak, and let him take his seat on a throne of gold! Pour out for Ishtar the water of life; from my realms let her depart.' Namar obeyed; he adorned the temple, decked the images, decked the altars; brought out Anunnak and set him on a throne of gold; poured out for Ishtar the water of life, and suffered her to depart. Then the first gate let her out, and gave her back the garment of her form. The second gate let her out, and gave her back the jewels for her hands and feet. The third gate let her out, and gave her back the girdle for her waist. The fourth gate let her out, and gave her back the small gems she had worn upon her brow. The fifth gate let her out, and gave her back the precious stones that had been upon her head. The sixth gate let her out, and gave her back the earrings that were taken from her ears. And the seventh gate let her out, and gave her back the crown she had carried on her head." So ends this curious legend. There are many others, especially an But the inexorable account of the Deluge, which is of great interest. march of time warns me that I must not trespass longer upon your patience, but must thank you for your kind attention, and make my bow. ANCIENT JUDAISM BY THE REV. A. W. OXFORD. 1. SOURCES FOR THE HISTORY. OUR chief authorities for the history of Israel are the books of the Old Testament. Unfortunately none of the historical books have reached us in their original form; they have been worked up by later historians whose aim was not to accurately reproduce the past so much as to paint such a picture of it as would best convey religious instruction to the men of their own generation. To gain this end they did not scruple to make any alterations, additions, and omissions which served to bring the books more into accordance with their own ideas. In order, then, to recover the original documents which lie at the bottom of the historical books of the Old Testament, we have to omit the later additions, supply the omissions, restore the corrections. Although this may seem at first sight almost impossible, it is made comparatively easy by three circumstances. Firstly, the old historians had no motive for concealing the process by which they worked, and therefore made no attempt to alter the style and phraseology of the documents which lay before them. Secondly, they were rarely skilful workmen, they often failed to make the necessary alterations in the old histories which they incorporated with their own. Thirdly, we have in the writings of the prophets a fixed point by means of which we can establish the dates of the various revisions which the books have undergone. We may, besides, gain considerable assistance from the translation of the LXX., especially where the Hebrew text is corrupt. 1. THE HEXATEUCH. We can only in the briefest manner indicate the chief results of the modern criticism of the Hexateuch; the arguments for and against them may be found fully discussed in Kuenen's "Hexateuch," Wellhausen's "Prolegomena," pp. 295–362, and his "Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," Part II. (a) The oldest portion of the Hexateuch is called the Jehovistic history book, and is denoted by the symbol JE. It consists of two parts: the author of the first part is called the Jehovist (J) from his using the word Jehovah for God; the author of the second the Elohist (E) from his using the word Elohim. J was composed about the year 800 B.C.; its author is claimed as a native of Judæa by Stade and 1 Even if they had wished to do this, the simplicity of the Hebrew language would have prevented them. Sometimes they left different narratives of the same event standing side by side. Wellhausen, as a northerner by Kuenen. The Elohist was certainly an Ephraimite; he wrote about the year 750 B.C.1 Kuenen argues 2 that Judæan editions were subsequently published both of J and E. The two books were united at the close of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century. (b) The next portion of the Hexateuch is the Deuteronomic (D). It originally consisted merely of Deut. v. to xxvi.3 and was published in the eighteenth year of king Josiah (B.c. 621). At a subsequent period-not earlier than B.C. 597-the addition was made of i. 1 to iv. 30, together with xxxi. 1-8, and perhaps chapters xxix. and xxx. Later again the Deuteronomic torah was united with JE; about this time were added the sections xxvii. 1-8; xxxi. 24-30; xxxii. 44-47; xxxiv. 4, 6, 74, 11, 12. (c) There remains what is called the priestly portion (P). This consists mainly of a priestly torah (P1) and a later historico-legislative work (P2). The latter was brought to Judæa by Ezra and Nehemiah in the year 444 B.C. and had been composed not long before. It is uncertain whether it was amalgamated with P, in Babylonia or at a later date in Judæa. Later again supplements were made to P1P (Ps, etc.) and finally P and JED were united by redactors (R) before the end of the fifth century, although slight alterations continued to be made until some time in the third century. It was mainly in connection with D that the historical books of the Old Testament were revised. The redaction is marked by the introduction of anonymous prophets, the change from "angel of Jehovah" to "Jehovah," and the ideas that sin must have preceded misfortune, that Israel always acted as a whole, and that the influence of a great saint must have made Israel faithful to Jehovah. Occasionally the influence of P has been at work: it can generally be discovered by the distinction between priest and Levite, the mention of the tabernacle, the use of the terms "high" priest and "congregation," and by the designation of the months by numbers. 2. THE BOOK OF JUDGES. The Book of Judges consists of an introduction, i. 1 to 1i. 5, the main body of the work, ii. 6 to xvi. 31, and two appendices, chapters xvii. and xviii. and chapters xix., xx., and xxi. The introduction has been connected with the Book of Joshua by the words "after the death of Joshua." It is not, however, a continuation of that book, but a parallel to it, since the west-Jordan land is not yet conquered and some events are common to both histories. The contents of 1 Hexateuch, 250, note (24). But compare Renan, ii. 379. Hexateuch, 248. 'The introduction, v.-xi., is ascribed by Wellhausen to another author than that of xii-xxvi. * Compare Judges i. 10-15, with Josh. xv. 13-19; i. 21, with xv. 63; i. 27, 28, with vik 12, 13; i. 29, with xvi. 10. the introduction are most important, though they are in part unhistorical,1 sometimes even contradictory. The main body of the work is complete in itself and follows Joshua, xxiv. 28, as suitably as its own introduction, i. I to ii. 5. Various additions have been made to the original history, as for example, in chapters iv., vi. I to viii. 3,3 the differences in the religious attitude of these show that they are due to a process of glorification. Afterwards the book was revised under the influence of Deuteronomy. For this purpose a prologue (ii. 6 to iii. 6) was added and the whole history altered in accordance with it; in monotonous repetition, rebellion is followed by affliction, affliction by conversion, conversion by peace. At the same time the book was forced into a chronological scheme, the key to which is found in 1 Kings vi. 1. The 480 years are twelve generations of forty years each. The wandering in the wilderness, the generation of Joshua and his surviving contemporaries (Judges ii. 7), the periods of rest under Othniel, Deborah, and Jerubbaal, account for 5 X 40, the rest under Ehud for 2 x 40, the dominion of the Philistines, the reigns of Saul and David for 3 × 40. The remaining eighty consist either of the seventy-one years of foreign rule (excluding the Philistine dominion) or of the seventy years of the minor judges, with a balance of nine or ten years, which must be distributed between Jephthah (six years), and either Solomon (until the temple was built) or Abimelech. 4 We may notice striking differences between the original history and its Deuteronomic redaction. (1) The latter of course is Judaic, whilst the former is so far from being so that in the song of Deborah Judah is not even mentioned. To rectify this error the redactor has opened the series of judges with Othniel, who was not a person but a clan.6 (2) The historical continuity which is given by the chronological scheme, cannot be traced in the original narratives. (3) The histories are those of tribal heroes, not of a united Israel; the tribes only combine against a common foe, such as Sisera, receiving thereby extraordinary praise from Deborah. The judges did not rule over the whole of Israel, every man did what was right in his own eyes. 1 I. 8, 18. 2 e.g. Compare i. 11 with verses 12-15, verses 19-21 seem to be an addition, for 19 is a correction of 18, 20 of 10, 21 of 8; verse ii. I is a parallel of Josh. xviii. 1 (i. 22; Gen. xxxv. 8). It is clear that ii. 16-5a is a Deuteronomic addition. Doubtless also the stories of Jephthah and Samson were originally profane, and received their religious colouring at a later date. Coinciding with Eli's forty years, and covering also Samson's twenty and the twenty of 1 Sam. vii. 2. Almost certainly the former, see note (3) on page 45. 1 Chr. xxvii. 15. The name was suggested by i. 13. Cushan-rishathaim is king of too remote a people to be Israel's enemy at that time, and his name "negro of double wickedness," shows that he is not an historical figure, but a bogie of popular legend. (4) The Deuteronomic contrast between absolute oppression and absolute peace is false; while some tribes dwelt in peace, others were struggling against enemies. (5) Israel was not guilty of any religious declension as vi. 13 incidentally discloses. The Baalim were the gods worshipped in different sanctuaries of the land, each of whom was supposed to be Jehovah,1 the Ashtaroth were almost certainly the Aschera or sacred poles, which are frequently mentioned as standing by the altar of Jehovah.9 Twelve judges are named in the book, though little is told of seven of them: these minor judges were probably added to complete the number twelve.3 Of Othniel we have already spoken. Ehud was perhaps a Benjaminite family, his story does not bear any distinct trace of its being a real history. Shamgar was probably an historical personage borrowed from v. 6 by the redactor who also invented the statement of iii. 31. Tola was a clan of Issachar, Jair of Gilead, Elon was a name of a town in Zebulon," Ibzan and Abdon also were doubtless clans. The story of Jephthah is an attempt to give an historical setting to the feast which was celebrated at Gilead. From xi. I we must conclude that Jephthah was one of the minor clans of Gilead. Cap. x. 6-16 is of course Deuteronomic; verses 17, 18 are an attempt to attach the section to chapter xi. Cap. xi. 12-29 is a late addition, borrowed from Numbers xx. and xxi.3 since xi. 11b is connected with xi. 30 and verses 28 and 29 anticipate 32. Cap. xii. 1-7 is likewise a late addition copied from the story of Gideon by a Judaic writer, who did not admire his yielding temper towards the proud northern tribe. Samson is no real Judge, since he acts only for himself and does not rule his tribe.10 He is partly a mythological figure,11 partly a legendary His history bears many striking resemblances to those of Jerubbaal hero. 1 Just as the Virgin Mary is worshipped now in Roman Catholic countries. See page 56 and Renan i. 230. Stade thinks that Abimelech was originally one of the twelve, and that Shamgar was afterwards inserted by a later redactor, who refused to regard Abimelech as a judge. This view is supported by the connection of iv. I with iii. 30, instead of with iii. 31. He thinks, also, that there were two Deuteronomic redactions, since the minor judges are introduced in a different way from the others, and the chronological scheme does not take in the number of years during which they ruled. 1 Chr. vii. 10; viii. 6. • Numb. xxvi. 23. Numb. xxxii. 41. The word for ass and city is in Hebrew the same. 7 Gen. xlvi. 14. • As we see from the introduction of Moab and Chemosh (xi. 24). For Jephthah has already been home for two months (xi. 39). The Shibboleth story and the number of Ephraimites slain by Jephthah are incredible. 10 Gen. xlix. 16 can only mean that Dan will keep its political independence and not meet with the fate of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi. 11 His name means "sun-man;" his long hair symbolizes the rays of the sun. Other traits of the sun-god are more or less clear. See Goldziher. |