Pope Chang.

Let your thoughts revert, rather, to the pure, wise, deep, philosophy of Nature; to those calm and unworldly sages who are associated with all that is best in Taoism; to their quietism and passionlessness, their profound insensibility to all those desires, attractions, schemings, pleasures, and ambitions which injure and destroy the pure, original nature of men; and to the beautiful teachings which those old patriarchs have left behind them. When you think of Taoism, don't think of the Taoist Pope, with his army of ignorant and juggling priests; think of it rather as a pure and fine philosophy, the moral outcome of which finds its expression in some of the words I have already quoted to you :

"Recompense injury with kindness."

"Resent it not, when you are reviled."

"Nothing will give you greater peace than the patient bearing of insult."
"He who overcomes others is strong: he who overcomes himself is mighty."

THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN.

By C. PFOUNDES (late of Japan),

Member Royal United Service Institution; Hon. Corresponding Member Geographical Society, Japan; Hon. Fell. Soc. Sc. Lit. & Art, Lond.) THE religions of Japan present to the intelligent inquirer and industrious student an inexhaustible fund of valuable material, especially so to those engaged in ethical culture; and of the many interesting phases of Oriental thought, none will better repay the time and labour.

The lecturer's claim to treat upon this subject, is based on the fact of some years' residence in Japan, mostly in temples, during the most critical and momentous period of its modern history, and, with knowledge of the vernacular, he discussed such matters with intelligent natives and priests of various sects.

He was much impressed by the great amiability and innate courtesy of all classes, their high sense of duty and patriotism, and neighbourly good qualities, as well as the broadness and liberality with which all such subjects were discussed, having regard to the feelings of others, even when dissenting from them in, opinion.

The geographical position of the group of islands forming the Japanese Empire is an important factor in its condition of intellectual and religious thought and development; and the unique stability of its chief political institutions is another element of moment.

Learned persons have been in all times most welcome in Japan; and the gifted natives who travelled far and wide returned with vast stores of knowledge. To understand the religious life of a nation, the alien, not always welcome, must get at the inner life, achieve the entire confidence, learn the language and modes of thought and the sources from which they are derived. The reticence of the natives-not to be surprised at, their confidences having been so often, alas ! betrayed-has precluded exhaustive information being afforded to all comers.

For a lucid and concise exposition, it may be well to deal with the questions chronologically, so far as the annals of Japan, confirmed by other sources of knowledge, aid us for the earlier periods.

It is perhaps most convenient to divide the subject into indigenous and alien cults; but they are so very closely interwoven that it is not easy to separate so complicated, though not at all homogeneous a whole. The most important section will be dealt with by another lecturer, who will speak on Shintôism-so that will not be trespassed upon further than is absolutely essential.

The origin of a people, or at least the sources whence they derived their radical religious ideas, and, if possible, also the eras when such were received, will necessarily have to be entered upon.

Japan may have been peopled from several widely separated sources, from north to south. It certainly has been visited by ancient scholars from far-distant parts of the continent.

The survivals of natural religion yet to be found are highly interesting to the more advanced student; but it is the first development of the ethical ideals, through superstitions, religions, and philosophy, that chiefly

concerns us.

About the time of the early days of Rome, a highly intellectual race appeared on the arena of Japanese history; and the first few centuries appear to have been fully occupied in reducing the very barbarous autochthones to something like peaceful order; and teaching the primitive arts. Since then, in unbroken descent, we have had, unique in history, a long line of rulers, the present being the hundred and twenty-third in the course of the twenty-five and a half centuries; and Japan's is the oldest imperial dynasty existent, chief of the civil and religious life of the empire: and on this the national cultus is founded. Spiritual activity is therefore very ancient, and is undoubtedly the development of far earlier teaching.

Chinese and Indian literature, philosophy, metaphysics, and science were introduced, and are to Japan what Greek and Latin classics are to ourselves.

The classics, of which Confucius is the best-known collector and editor, the philosophy of the Taoists, and later the Indian, followed by Buddhism, entered into Japanese education, and influenced thought and conduct.

In passing through China, Indian dogma became materially leavened, so that we shall find many sects in Japan, but all quite as harmonious as, and quarrelling no more than do, sectarians nearer home. There are more than a dozen sects of Buddhism now in Japan, several of which have numerous sub-sects.

The Chinese and Indians who arrived from time to time in Japan, as well as the Japanese who returned from India, China, etc., founded many distinct sects, and taught much that diverged, sometimes conflicting with the transcendental Buddhism of Aryavata.

Buddhism was resisted strenuously for a long time, at first by the custodians of the shrines of the indigenous cultus; and it was not till the fifth century, a thousand years after the Buddha, Gautama Shaklya Muni, that it obtained a foothold. One of the imperial family took up the cause, like Asoka of India, and became the "Constantine" of Japanese religion.

Whatever Christianity may or may not owe to earlier Buddhism, there can be little doubt that later Buddhism contains elements of Christianity as of other beliefs.

From time to time efforts were made, more or less successful, to revive the pure Shinto or Kami no Michi-divine way or spiritual doctrine; and this must have greatly influenced Buddhism, and enforced some reform within itself, and purified it of the demoralizing influences a sacerdotal class always permits to flourish. The growth of power of a theocracy here, as in all time, had its evils; and Buddhism is no exception in history.

The various sects that arose each based their doctrine on some special portions of the great body of teaching as received from India, leavened and modified by Chinese and Japanese philosophies and modes of thought.

The original eight sects, some offshoots from those established in China during the preceding centuries, grew into others. Some flourished; others declined, or were absorbed in newer, stronger movements.

It must be remembered that Buddhism was a successful revolt against Brahmanical domination and monopolizing of sacred offices and high-caste exclusive privileges.

Some of the sects taught that good works and the acquisition of "merit" were all-essential to salvation; others impressed-and still do so the efficacy of continued repetition of exclamatory invocation, or recitation of some ritual. Some work themselves up to a point of religious ecstasy, just like more or less ignorant and bigoted enthusiastic fanatics much nearer home to-day.

The intonation of prayers, with accompaniment of bell, or gong, or drum, was one of the disadvantages of residence in temple buildings; but one got used to it, like other matters, in time, by the exercise of a little patience and philosophy, until at last the monotonous, yet not always unmusical, certainly generally rhythmical, sounds became positively somniferous.

Just a few words by way of comparison as to the contrasts between the fundamental points of Christianity and the prevailing beliefs of the far East, in all courtesy and respect for the feelings of professing Christians.

The Redemption, the basis of Christianity, finds no place, no parallel ; indeed, so far from sympathy, it is received with abhorrence by the great majority of natives, the educated especially, however carefully the feeling may be suppressed in the company of missionaries and foreigners avowedly enthusiastic Christians. The idea of the Deity lampooned by Bobbie Burns, in his satire on the "Elect," finds no place in the religious conception of the natives of the extreme Orient. Sacrifice, much less propitiatory sacrifice of such awful character, and the Sacrament of the Church, was an incredible mystery. Its necessity could not be understood by those who were asked to accept as a God of love a deity that permitted, much less demanded, the perpetuation of such a doctrine.

The justice, too, of a priesthood being competent to remit sins at the last moment, and place the most wicked on the same level with the most virtuous, is another difficulty. That sin should be forgiven under such

conditions, is viewed as a direct incentive to wrong-doing, if it can be finally cancelled whenever it suits the wicked one to become good.

Buddhism is much discussed nowadays; but it is greatly misunderstood, often, I fear, wilfully misstated. To take any one local or sectarian phase, and the less admirable features of this, as representing the general and fundamental principles is, intentional or not, too often the suggestio falsi as well as the suppressio veri, if not worse even.

Buddhism teaches that mankind should work out, each for themselves, their own salvation, and rectify the ills caused by fellow-mortals by reasonable human effort.

Superhuman or supernatural aids for the present or for the hereafter appear necessary in the teaching of certain sects, whose dogma is of later development, derived from other than pure Buddhistic sources.

To those who seek a personal salvation, by merit or otherwise, this is not altogether denied; but to those who attain to the higher ideals something far higher, much less selfish, more noble, is offered. Amongst the educated classes formal prayers and religious observance are less general than amongst the illiterate.

An illustration, one of a series of caricatures, represents an old woman reckoning upon her abacus, in front of a gilt image, her good and evil deeds from the entries in a book open in the lap of the idol.

Some of the Japanese with whom I have talked, quite agree with those Roman Catholics who do not deem the Bible, in its entirety, quite the most fitting book for general family reading; especially for the young of either sex to pick out certain passages that in any other book would be deemed most highly objectionable; and think that those who criticise Oriental books, and animadvert on their indecency, should look nearer home first.

The inexperienced, partially educated, young missionary does not appeal with very great effect (often very much wanting in tact) to the educated and subtle-minded natives. Even all but the most illiterate are astute enough to see the propagandist is not well-informed on general subjects, and usually narrow-minded. Besides, the general method of attacking the native faith and ideas, before becoming thoroughly acquainted with what is attacked, displays more than mere want of judgment, and vitiates the efforts. The native knows the missioner is a paid agent-another vital

flaw.

After the visit of Xavier (the pupil of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits) the propagandists of Rome had a short but not very brilliant period of success. In consequence of the priests meddling in politics, and something more than mere suspicion of a desire to reduce Japan to a dependency of Rome, or some Roman Catholic European State, the priests were given notice to quit; but they incited the converts to open rebellion, and forced their way secretly amongst the natives. Rigorous and yet more severe edicts were issued, stringent measures taken, and still the priests persevered, till extreme measures appeared to be the only means to pre