the son of one of the first men in the nation to be beaten. The father of the boy complained to Astyages, who reprimanded young Cyrus. But he appealed to his right as king of his companions, and replied with so much boldness and good sense, that Astyages became interested in him, and instituted inquiries, which led to the discovery of his birth." The magi having succeeded in quieting the uneasiness which the discovery occasioned him, he sent Cyrus to his parents in Persia, with marks of his favor. But the young man soon drew together a formidable army of Persians, and conquered his grandfather, B. C. 560. A similar fate befell Croesus, the rich and powerful king of Lydia, and Nabonadius, king of Babylon, whose capital he took, after a siege of two years. He also subdued Phoenicia and Palestine, to which he caused the Jews to return from the Babylonish captivity. While Asia, from the Hellespont to the Indies, was under his dominion, he engaged in an unjust war against the Massagete-a people of Scythia, north-east of the Caspian sea, beyond the Araxes, then ruled by a queen named Tomyris. In the first battle, he conquered by stratagem; but, in the second, he experienced a total defeat, and was himself slain, B. C. 529, after a reign of 29 years. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses. The stories related by Xenophon (q. v.), in the Cyropædia (Account of the Life and remarkable Traits in the Character of Cyrus), that he received a splendid education at the court of Astyages, inherited his kingdom, and ruled like a genuine philosopher, are either mere romance, deserving not the least historical credit (Xenophon's design being to represent the model of a king, without regard to historical truth, and, in this way, perhaps, to exhibit to his countrymen the advantages of a monarchy), or else the two accounts are founded on different traditions, perhaps of two different persons named Cyrus.-Another Cyrus was the youngest son of Darius Nothus, or Ochus, who lived nearly 150 years later than the former. In the 16th year of his age, he obtained the supreme power over all the provinces of Asia Minor. His ambition early displayed itself; and when, after his father's death, his eldest brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, ascended the throne, Cyrus formed a conspiracy against him, which was, however, discovered before it came to maturity. Instead of causing the sentence of death to be executed upon him, his brother kindly released him, and "made him governor of Asia Minor. Here

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Cyrus assembled a numerous army, to make war upon Artaxerxes, and dethrone him. Among his forces were 13,000 Greek auxiliaries, who were ignorant, however, of the object of the expedition. Being informed of his brother's design, Artaxerxes marched against him with a much larger army. In the plains of Cynaxa, in the province of Babylon, the two armies encountered each other. After a brave resistance, especially on the part of the Greeks, the army of Cyrus was overcome, and he himself slain by the hand of Artaxerxes.

CYTHERA (now Cerigo; population, 8000), one of the seven Ionian islands, separated by a narrow strait from the south shore of Laconia, was particularly celebrated for the worship of Venus Urania, whose temple in Cythera, the chief city, was the oldest and most splendid of her temples in Greece. The ancient Cythera is now demolished, and exhibits nothing but a few ruins. On the shore of this island, according to one tradition, Venus first ascended from the sea, and took possession of the land; i. e., Phoenician navigators here first introduced the worship of Venus into Greece. The island is rocky and unfruitful. From this place, Venus has her name Cytherea.

CZAR, ZAR, or ZAAR; a title of the autocrat of Russia. The word is of old Sclavonic origin, and is nearly equivalent to king. The emperor is called, in the same language, kessar. Until the 16th century, the rulers of the several Russian provinces were called grand-princes (weliki knaes). Thus there were grandprinces of Wladimir, Kiev, Moscow, &c. The grand-prince Wasilie first received, in 1505, the title of samodersheta, which is equivalent to the Greek word autocrat. (q. v.)

The son of Wasilie, Ivan II, adopted, in 1579, the title of Czar of Moscow, which his descendants bore for a long time. In 1721, the senate and clergy conferred on Peter I, in the name of the nation, the title of emperor of Russia, for which, in Russia, the Latin word imperator is used. Several European powers declined to acknowledge this title, until the middle of the last century. The eldest son and presumptive heir of the czar was called czareviz (czar's son); but, with the unfortunate Alexis, son of Peter I, this title ceased, and all the princes of the imperial house have been since called grandprinces. The emperor Paul I renewed the title czareviz, or czarewitch, in 1799, for his second son, Constantine. (q. v.) The rulers of Georgia and Imiretta, now under

the Russian sceptre, called themselves

czars.

CZENSTOCHOW, or CZENSTOCHOWA; a fortified monastery, belonging to the order of St. Paul the Hermit, in Poland, province of Kalisch, near the Wartha and the frontiers of Silesia. In this fortification, well provided with artillery, the monks formerly had their own garrison, and chose commandants from their own number. In the diet of 1765, however, it was determined to occupy this place with a secular

force. Frequent pilgrimages are made to the miraculous image of the Virgin, in the church of the monastery. At the foot of the mountain lies New Čzenstochow, with a population of 1300, and, a few miles distant, Old Czenstochow, with a population of 1700. In 1812, Czenstochow was occupied by a garrison of French soldiers, who were compelled to surrender to the Russians in January, 1813.

CZERNY GEORGE. (See Servia.)
CZIRKNITZ. (See Zirknitz.)

D; the fourth letter in our alphabet, of the order of mutes. (See Consonant.) According to M. Champollion's recent discoveries, the d, in the hieroglyphic writing of the old Egyptians, corresponding to the dau of the Copts, is a segment of a circle, similar to a . The Greek delta was a triangle, A, from which the Roman D has been borrowed. D, as an initial letter on medals, indicates the names of countries, cities and persons, as Decius; also the words devotus, designatus, divus, dominus, &c.; D. M., diis manibus; D. O. M., Deo optimo maximo. The Greek A represented the number four. Among Roman numerals, D signifies 500, but was not used as a numerical designation until 1500 years after Christ. The Romans designated a thousand in this way,-CI). The early printers, it is said, thought it best to express 500 by half the character of 1000, and therefore introduced I, which soon grew into D. If a line was marked over it, it signified 5000. In inscriptions and manuscripts, D is very often found in the place of B and L; des for bes, dachruma for lachruma. In dedications, D., thrice_repeated, signifies Dat, Donat, Dicat, or Dat, Dicat, Dedicat. As an abbreviation of the jurists, D signifies the pandects (Digesta). D stands for doctor in M. D.; in D. T., doctor of theology; LL. D., doctor of laws, &c. D., on French coins, signifies Lyons; on Prussian, Aurich; on Austrian, Grätz. In music, D designates the second note in the natural diatonic scale of C, to which Guido applied the monosyllable re.

DA CAPO (Ital.; from the head or beginning); an expression written at the end of a movement, to acquaint the performer

that he is to return to, and end with, the first strain. It is also a call or acclamation to the singer or musician, in theatres or concerts, to repeat a piece which he has just finished-a request very often made mercilessly by the public, without regard to the fatigue caused by a performance.

DACCA JELALPORE; an extensive and rich district of Bengal, situated principally between 23° and 24° of N. lat. It is intersected by the Ganges and Brahmapootra, two of the largest rivers in India, which, with their various branches, form a complete inland navigation, extending to every part of the country; so that, every town having its river or canal, the general mode of travelling or conveying goods is by water.

DACCA; a large city, capital of the abovenamed district, and, for 80 years, the capital of Bengal. It is situated on the northern bank of a deep and broad river, called the Boor Gunga (Old Ganges), at the distance of 100 miles from the sea. In this city, or its vicinity, are manufactured beautiful muslins, which are exported to every part of the civilized world. It has also an extensive manufacture of shell bracelets, much worn by the Hindoo women. The neighborhood of the city abounds with game of all sorts, from the tiger to the quail, and is, on this account, a great resort of Europeans, during the three cold months. 180 miles from Calcutta by land; lon. 90° 17′ E.; lat. 23° 42 N.

DACH, Simon, a German poet of the 17th century, born at Memel, July 29, 1605, lived in an humble condition, until he was appointed professor of poetry in

the university of Königsberg. He remained in this office until his death, April 15, 1659. His secular songs are lively and natural. His sacred songs are distinguished for deep and quiet feeling.

DACIA. The country which anciently bore this name, according to Ptolemy's description, comprised the present Banat, a part of Lower Hungary, as far as the Carpathian mountains on the west, Transylvania, Moldavia, Walachia and Bessarabia. Some include Bulgaria and Servia, with Bosnia, or the ancient Upper and Lower Mosia. The inhabitants of this country, called Daci, also Davi, made themselves, for a long time, terrible to the Romans. When Trajan conquered Dacia, in the second century, he divided it into, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis (the present Banat, and a part of Hungary), so called because it was bounded on the west by the Theiss, and on the east by the Danube; 2. Dacia Mediterranea (now Transylvania), so called, because it was situated between the two others; and, 3. Dacia Transalpina (now Walachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia), or that part of Dacia lying beyond the Carpathian mountains. He governed each of these three provinces by a prefect, established colonies in them, and sent colonists from other parts of the Roman empire, to people them, and supply cultivators of the soil. When Constantine the Great divided the Roman empire anew, Dacia became a part of the Illyrian prefecture, and was divided into five provinces or districts. Upon the fall of the Roman empire, it was gradually overrun by the Goths, Huns, Gepida and Avars. Since that time, the history of this country, which then lost the name of Dacia, is to be sought for in that of the provinces of which it formerly consisted.

DACIER, André, born at Castres, in Upper Languedoc, 1651, of Protestant parents, studied at Saumur, under Tanneguy-Lefèvre, whose daughter Anna was associated in his studies. After the death of Lefevre, in 1672, he went to Paris. The duke of Montausier, to whom his learning was known, intrusted him with the editing of Pompeius Festus (in usum delphini). The intimacy growing out of their mutual love of literature led to a marriage between him and Anna Lefèvre, in 1683, and, two years after, they both embraced the Catholic religion. They received from the king considerable pensions. In 1695, Dacier was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions, and of the French academy: of the latter he was afterwards perpetual secretary.

The care of the cabinet in the Louvre was intrusted to him. He died in 1722. Dacier wrote several indifferent translations of the Greek and Latin authors. Besides the edition of Pompeius Festus, and the Œuvres d'Horace, en Latin, et en Français, with the Nouveaux Éclaircissemens sur les Euvres d'Horace, and the Nouvelle Traduction d'Horace, with critical annotations, he prepared an edition of Valerius Flaccus, a translation of Marcus Antoninus, of Epictetus, of Aristotle's Art of Poetry, with annotations, of the Lives of Plutarch, of the Edipus and Electra of Sophocles, of the works of Hippocrates, and of several dialogues of Plato.

DACIER, Anna Lefèvre; wife of the preceding; born at Saumur, in 1651. After the death of her learned father, who had instructed her, and cultivated her talents, she went to Paris, where she displayed her learning by an edition of Callimachus (1675), which she inscribed to Huet, the under tutor of the dauphin. The duke of Montausier, in consequence, intrusted her with the care of several editions of the classics (in usum delphini). She first edited Florus (q. v.), with a commentary. Her learned works were not interrupted by her marriage. Her feeble translation of Homer attracted a good deal of attention, and led to a dispute between her and Lamotte, in which it appeared that madame Dacier understood much less of logic, than Lamotte of the Greek language. In her Considérations sur les Causes de la Corruption du Goût, she defended Homer with the acuteness of a profound commentator, and Lamotte replied with a great deal of wit and elegance; on which account it was said, Lamotte wrote like an ingenious woman, madame Dacier like a learned man. Lamotte introduced her to the notice of queen Christina, who persuaded her to embrace the Catholic religion. In her Homère défendu, she showed little mercy to Hardouin, who had written a satirical eulogy of this poet. On this occasion, she was said to have uttered more invectives against the reviler of Homer, than the poet himself had placed in the mouths of all his heroes. She translated Terence, and three pieces of Plautus, in the prologue of which she treats of the origin, the cultivation and changes of dramatic poetry with acuteness. Her translation of the Plutus and the Clouds of Aristophanes, deserves indulgence, as the first translation of the Greek comic poet. Her translation of Anacreon and Sappho, with a defence of the latter, met with success. She also wrote annotations 591419

on the Bible, but did not publish them. Her life was entirely devoted to literature, and her domestic duties. She died in 1720. Equally estimable for her character and her talents, she gained as many admirers by her virtue, her constancy and her equanimity, as by her works. She was chosen member of several academies. DACTYLE. (See Rhythm.)

DACTYLIOTHECA (Greek); a collection of engraved gems. The art of engraving gems was no where carried to greater perfection than in Greece, where they were worn not only in rings (from which the name of dakrúλios, ring), but in seals, and were much used for other ornamental purposes. The Romans were far behind the Greeks in this art; but they were the first who made collections of precious stones. Scaurus, the son-in-law of Sylla, introduced the custom (Pliny, Hist. Nat., 37, 5). Pompey the Great transferred the collection of Mithridates to Rome, and placed it in the capitol, A much larger collection was exhibited by Cæsar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, and, after wards, under Augustus, by M. Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus. In modern times, the princes of Italy vied with each other in collecting these treasures of art. The family of Gonzaga established the first dactyliotheca, and was followed by the family of Este at Modena, that of Farnese, and by Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence. The gems collected by him are marked with Lor., or Lor. de' M., or with M. alone. His collection was divided and scattered, but the Medici established a new one, the foundation of the present D. Florentina, the most important existing, as it contains about 4000 gems. In Rome, collections of no great value were made under Julius II and Leo X. Maria Piccolomini, a Roman prelate, had the best in that city; and Lucio Odescalchi, afterwards duke of Bragiani, inherited that of Christina queen of Sweden. Rome afterwards received the collections of the Vatican (formed more at random than on any connected plan), of the Barberini, and of the Strozzi (containing some masterpieces of the art, now in St. Petersburg). The D. Ludovisia, belonging to the prince of Piombino, and that of the cardinal Borgia at Velletri, famous for its Egyptian gems and scarabæi, are still celebrated. Naples has beautiful gems in the cabinet at Portici and at Capo di Monte. The prince Piscari formed a collection at Catanea, in Sicily, consisting entirely of gems found in Sicily. In France, the first collection was begun by Francis I, but was dispersed

in the civil war. In the reign of Louis XIV, Louvois laid the foundation of the present fine collection of antiques in the royal library. The collection of the duke of Orleans, which he inherited from the Palatinate, was celebrated. Besides these, there were several private collections of value. The most celebrated in England are those of the dukes of Devonshire, Bedford and Marlborough, and the earls of Carlisle and Desborough. Germany also has collections. In the palace of Sans Souci, at Potsdam, near Berlin, several are united, among which is that of Muzel Stosch, rendered famous by the description of Winckelmann. Vienna has a separate cabinet of gems. The collection of Dresden is good. The city library of Leipsic possesses some good gems. The collection at Cassel is extensive, but not very valuable. Münich has some beautiful pieces. There are also many private collections. In the Netherlands, the cabinet of the king is valuable. In the royal palace at Copenhagen, there are some vases inlaid with gems; and Petersburg has, besides the imperial collection, the foundation of which was that of the engraver Natter, the rich collection of count Poniatowski. To multiply elegant and ingenious or remarkable designs on gems, engravings or casts are taken. Thus not only single designs, but all those of the same class, or those of a whole cabinet, are represented by engravings. The impressions of various classes of gems have been collected. Bellori collected the portraits of philosophers and others; Chifflet, abraxas stones (see Abraxas, and Gnosis); Gori, gems engraved with stars; Ficoroni, gems with inscriptions; Stosch, gems bearing the names of the artists. Representations of whole collections have been given; as, by Gori, of those contained in the Museum Florentinum; by Wicar and Mongez, of those in the gallery of Florence; by Mariette, of the former French collections; by Leblond and Lachaux, of that of the duke of Orleans; by Eckhel, of that of Vienna. We might also mention the copies of the Museum d'Odescalchi, of the cabinets of Gravelle, Stosch, Bossi, and the duke of Marlborough. But, although some of these impressions are very beautiful, the preference ought to be given to the casts. The collections of such casts are also called dactyliothecæ ; for instance, the dactyliotheca of Lippert, consisting of 3000 pieces. Tassie, in London, has executed the largest collection of casts yet known, amounting to 15,000. These are important aids in the study of

the branch of antiquities with which they are connected.

DACTYLIOMANCY (from dakrúλos, a ring, and pavreća, divination); the pretended art of divining by means of rings.

DACTYLOLOGY, or DACTYLONOMY (from dákrulos, the finger), is the art of numbering with the fingers; or, in a wider sense, of expressing one's thoughts in general with the fingers. It is usually taught in institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb.

DADUCHUS (Latin; sadsxos, Greek); literally a torch-bearer, but applied as an epithet to many of the ancient divinities, who were always represented as bearing a torch or flambeau. Daduchi were also those persons, who, in certain ceremonies and religious processions, carried the flambeaus or sacred torches. The Daduchic deities are Ceres, when represented as searching for her lost daughter Proserpine; Diana, Luna, Hecate and Sol, when in their cars, employed in the business of lighting the earth; Venus, Cupid and Hymen, when bearing the torch of love; Rhea or Cybele, and Vesta, in the temples where the vestals guarded the sacred fire of those goddesses; Vulcan, in whose honor, conjointly with Prometheus and Pallas as Daduchi, the Athenians instituted a festival, which they called Lampadephoria, Aapnaonpopia (see Lampadephoria); Bellona, the Furies, Aurora, Hymen, Peace (on a medal of Vespasian); Comus (in an ancient painting described by Philostratus); Night, Sleep, and Death, or Thanatus, (Θάνατος).

DEDALUS (Δαιδαλος). The name of Dadali is given to full-length figures or images, with the feet in an advancing posture. But whence this appellation is derived, is a contested point. Winckelmann, following Palæphatus and Diodorus, says, "Daedalus began to separate the lower part of the Hermes into legs; and the first statues are said to have received from him the name of Dadali." The common opinion is, that Dædalus first separated the legs of the statues in an advancing posture, which explains the saying that his statues moved, since all previous sculptors formed their statues with the arms hanging down, not divided from the body, and the legs not separated, like the mummy-shaped figures of the Egyptians. According to Pausanias, Dædalus received his name from the statues (the name of which is said to have been derived from dadadev, to work with skill) Böttiger (in his Lectures on Archæology, Dresden, 1806) supposes that

Daedalus is not a proper name, but the common appellation of all the first architects, metallurgists and sculptors in Grecian antiquity; also, in general, an artist, as dadalic signifies artificial, skilful. In early periods, every art is confined to the family and friends of the inventor, and the disciples are called sons. Thus the ancients speak of the Dædalian family of artists, including Talos, Perdix, Diopœnos, Scyllis and others. According to the common opinion, Dædalus lived three generations before the Trojan war, was distinguished for his talents in architecture, sculpture and engraving, and the inventor of many instruments; for instance, the axe, the saw, the plummet, the auger; also of glue, and masts and yards for ships. As a sculptor, he wrought mostly in wood, and was the first who made the eyes of his statues open. This he did in Athens, which he was compelled to leave on account of the murder of his disciple Talos, of whose skill he was jealous. He built the famous labyrinth in Crete; executed for Ariadne a group of male and female dancers, of white stone, and for Pasiphae the notorious wooden cow. Being imprisoned with his son Icarus, he invented instruments for flying. The wings were composed of linen, or, according to Ovid, of feathers, and fastened with wax, which caused the death of Icarus; whence the Icarian sea is said to have received its name. Dædalus himself reached Sicily, on the southern coast of which a place was called, after him, Dadalium. A festival called Dadala (image-festival) was celebrated in Bootia, mostly at Platea. We must not confound this Daedalus with a later sculptor, Dædalus of Sicyon. Many stories of different artists have, probably, been blended to form the character of Dædalus.

DAENDELS, Hermann William, a Dutch general, born in 1762, at Hattem, in Guelderland, took an important part in the troubles which began in Holland, in 1787, on the side of the patriots, and, with many of his countrymen of the same party, was compelled to take refuge in France, where he engaged in commercial speculations, in Dunkirk. In 1793, he was appointed colonel in the new legion of volunteers, Franc étranger, and was of great service to Dumouriez, in his expedition against Holland. He rendered still greater services to Pichegru, in the campaign of 1794, which made the French commander master of all Holland. Daendels now became lieutenant-general in the service of the Batavian republic, and took an important