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others, their conduct rendered them very unpopular. Both their own incapacity and the power of the government rendered them, in most countries, either useless or obnoxious; and, in many countries, both the people and the government were equally desirous to abolish them, though for different reasons. The time of the French revolution approached, and views of general justice and legal equality became popular throughout Europe. Every reader knows that the system of the estates was abolished in France, and all the countries where the French obtained an ascendency in the new formation, or the reformation of governments. Since the downfall of Napoleon, many governments have reestablished the estates, or endeavored to satisfy the spirit of the age, which calls for a secure individual liberty, by a new organization of them. This subject has been particularly treated in the article Constitution. (q. v.) In Sweden, there is a fourth estate-that of the crown peasants. Circumstances have changed so entirely, civilization has so nearly equalised the different orders, the interests of men have become so generalized, that the institution of estates has become unsuited to the wants of the age: they have had their time, and have become obsolete. They are directly contrary to the spirit of our age, as is the whole feudal system, and can only be considered as remnants of former times, forms from which the spirit has long since departed. They serve at present only to frustrate the most just and reasonable demand of society-individual liberty, protected by equal laws and an equal representation.

ESTE; one of the most ancient and illustrious families of Italy. Muratori traces its origin to those petty princes who gov. erned Tuscany in the time of the Carlovingians (10th century). In later times, they received from the emperors several districts and counties, to be held as fiefs of the empire, viz. Este, Rovigo, Montagnana, Casal Maggiore, Pontremoli and Obertenga, with the title of marquis. Of this family was Guelfo IV, who, having received the investiture of the duchy of Bavaria, founded the house of Brunswick, which, from this circumstance, was called the Estensian Guelf. During the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, the history of the house of Este is connected with the vicissitudes of the other ruling families and free states of Upper Italy. In the contests between the Guelfs and Ghibelines, the marquises of Este, as leaders of the Guelf party, acquired the territories of Ferrara and

Modena, notwithstanding many reverses. This house was much distinguished for its patronage of the arts and sciences. Nicolas II (died 1388) first made the court of Ferrara the seat of refinement and taste. The reign of Nicolas III (died 1441) was still more brilliant. He opened, in 1402, the university of Ferrara, founded by his father, Albert, and which had been suppressed during his minority; he also founded that of Parma. His liberality attracted the most distinguished men of the age, among whom were Guarini of Verona, the ancestor of the celebrated poet, and Giovanni Aurispa. He transmitted his love of literature to his sons, Lionel and Borso, who endeavored to render Ferrara the country of scholars and poets. The reign of Lionel was distinguished neither by conquests nor other great political occurrences; but no prince of the house of Este was more beloved by his contemporaries for his amiable disposition, the charms of his wit, and the elegance of his manners. He encouraged industry and commerce, the arts and sciences, by every method, and was himself a model of eloquence in the Latin and Italian languages. He corresponded with the most distinguished men of Italy, and contributed more than any prince of his time to restore ancient literature to that splendor which rendered the 16th century so illustrious. Under his brother and successor, Borso, (died 1471), agriculture, commerce, and all the arts of peace, were in a flourishing condition. Borso was fond of pomp, but, as he neither maintained fortresses nor armies, his expenditures did not exhaust his finances. emperor Frederic III, enchanted with his reception by Borso, on his passage through Ferrara, conferred on him the title of duke of Modena and Reggio. Borso also obtained from the pope, Pius V, the duchy of Ferrara, which he held as a fief of the church. His successor, Ercole I (died 1505), suffered much from the Venetians and their allies, who wished to deprive the house of Este of its territories; but Milan, Florence and Naples took arms in his defence, and a general war was the consequence. After concluding a disadvantageous peace in 1484, Ercole maintained a neutrality for 21 years, although important revolutions took place in Italy. During this period, his subjects enjoyed all the blessings of peace, and his capital was distinguished for elegance and refinement. Boiardo, count of Scandiano, the celebrated author of Orlando Innamorato, was his friend and minister. Ariosto, yet

The

very young, already enjoyed the ducal favor, and the court of Ferrara was adorned by the most celebrated geniuses of the period. His son, Alfonso I (died 1534), succeeded him. His second wife was the famous Lucretia Borgia, whose brilliant talents and love of literature contributed in some measure to obliterate the infamy of her early years. Ariosto was in the service of Alfonso's brother, the cardinal Ippolito, a patron by no means worthy of such a poet. His sacred office could not restrain him from violence and crime; and he caused the eyes of his brother Julius, his rival in the affections of a lady, to be put out, because she had praised their beauty. Alfonso suffered this barbarous act, at which all Ferrara was indignant, to go unpunished; but the injured Julius and his brother Ferdinand entered into a conspiracy to dethrone him, for the purpose of rendering his revenge on Ippolito more sure. The conspiracy was detected, and the punishment of the two brothers was commuted into perpetual imprisonment, at the moment when the axe was suspended over their heads. Alfonso also displayed great military talents. He entered into the league of Cambray, in 1509. The Venetians, under Angelo Trevisani, appeared at the mouth of the Po, and spread terror through the whole province of Ferrara. He enclosed this fleet, which ascended the river, within the fire of his batteries constructed on both banks, captured part, and burnt the rest: this victory was commemorated by the most celebrated Italian poets. Pope Julius II abandoned the league of Cambray, and joined the Venetians; he laid Alfonso, whom he could not persuade to follow his example, under an interdict, and declared all his papal fiefs forfeited. By this measure of Julius, Alfonso lost Modena, and was deserted by his allies. The French, however, continued in their alliance with him, and he contributed to the victory which they gained at Ravenna in 1512. But, the French being soon after obliged to leave Italy, Alfonso stood alone. Meanwhile Julius died; but his successor, Leo X, refused to restore to Alfonso the cities of Modena and Reggio, which Francis I, who favored the house of Este, had obliged him to promise. The papal court even attempted the assassination of the duke, by the captain of his guard. Alfonso, thus menaced on all sides, was preparing to defend himself, when the death of Leo X (1521) delivered the house of Este from the impending ruin. Adrian

VI revoked the censures of the church; but Clement VII, his successor, seemed to have inherited the hatred of his uncle Leo; he kept Alfonso out of possession of Modena, and even endeavored to deprive him of his other states. Soon afterwards, the capture of Rome (1527) enabled the emperor Charles V to restore to him his ancient possessions, and to confirm the claims of the house of Este. Alfonso excelled all the Italian princes of his time, in uniting military glory with political talents; none of them was surrounded by more distinguished men, and none has been celebrated by nobler poets; among whom Ariosto is the most illustrious. His successor, Ercole II (died 1559), was attached to Charles V, who, by his great preponderance, subjected all Italy to his influence. His brother Ippolito, at Rome, on the contrary, was attached to the French interest. This cardinal, who built the splendid villa d'Este, at Tivoli, was the most munificent patron of the arts and sciences of that age. Alfonso II (died 1597) inherited, it is true, from his ancestors, a love of letters, but a still greater fondness for pomp and luxury. His disputes with the grand-duke of Tuscany, regarding the precedency, and his efforts to obtain the crown of Poland, which involved him in great expense, occupied his whole political career. His finances were exhausted, and his subjects burdened with taxes. The first poets, and most distinguished men of Italy, continued, however, to adorn his court; but the persecutions of Tasso suggest only melancholy or disgraceful recollections for the house of Este. The seven years which the poet passed in a mad-house, either for having dared to love the princess Leonora, sister of the duke, or because, in the excess of his passion, he had so far forgot himself as to offend the pride of his sovereign, bear witness to the cruelty of Alfonso. Although he was married three times, he was childless; and he appointed his cousin Cæsar (died 1628), son of a natural son of Alfonso I, his successor. On Cæsar's accession to the dukedom, pope Clement VIII declared the choice to have been illegal, and all the papal fiefs held by the house of Este to have reverted to the church. Cæsar possessed so little firmness of character, that he immediately yielded to the menaces and armies of the pope, and surrendered Ferrara, together with the other ecclesiastical fiefs. Fortunately, the emperor did not dispute his succession to the imperial fiefs; he remained in possession of Modena and

Reggio, but was obliged to dispute the possession of Garfagnano in two wars with the republic of Lucca, until the contest was finally settled by the mediation of Spain. The violent temper of his son and successor, Alfonso III, at first excited apprehensions of a cruel and tyrannical reign; but the death of his wife, Isabella of Savoy, to whom he was warmly attached, effected such a change in his character, that he resigned the government into the hands of his eldest son, Francis, and retired to a capuchin monastery in the Tyrol, under the name of Giovanni Battista of Modena, where he passed his days in religious meditation and acts of piety. Since the loss of Ferrara, the house of Este has been distinguished only for its ancient splendor. Francis I, son of Alfonso III, died in 1658; Alfonso IV, in 1662; Francis II, in 1694: Rinaldo I died in 1737. The last mentioned prince, who was in early life a cardinal, married Charlotte Felicitas of Brunswick, daughter of the duke of Hanover, and thus reunited the two branches of the house of Este, which had been divided since 1070. His son Francis III (died 1780) deserves to be mentioned as a patron of literature. Muratori and Tiraboschi were his subjects, and received pensions from him. Ercole III, the last duke of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola, married his only daughter, Maria Beatrice, to the arch-duke Ferdinand of Austria: a fruit of this marriage was the second wife of Francis of Austria. Ercole had accumulated great treasures, but lost the affections of his subjects, and, on the approach of the French armies, in 1796, he fled to Venice. Modena and Reggio were included in the Cisalpine confederacy (republic), and the house of Este was definitively deprived of the sovereignty by the treaty of Campo-Formio (q.v.), Oct. 17, 1797. (See Modena.)

ESTHER; originally a Jewish girl, a prisoner in Persia. Her beauty gained her the love, and made her the queen, of the king Ahasuerus. Her intercession delivered the Jews from a general proscription, to which they had been subjected by Haman, a minister and favorite of the king. The history of this event is the subject of the book of Esther. Many writers suppose that this Ahasuerus is the Artaxerxes of the Greeks. There are many different suppositions respecting the author of the book of Esther.

ESTHETICS. (See Esthetics.) ESTHONIA, or the GOVERNMENT OF REVAL; the northern part of the Russian prov50

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ince of Livonia, consisting of 7000 square miles, and containing 302,600 inhabitants. Though much of its soil is sandy, it produces grain, hemp, flax, cattle, horses, &c. Reval is the capital. The Esthonians, a Finnish tribe, anciently belonged to the Russian monarchy, and were called Tschuds. They afterwards attempted to deliver themselves from the Russian yoke; and, after 1385, when the country was sold to the Teutonic knights, it made a part of Livonia, with which, after being 100 years subject to Sweden, it reverted to Russia. Under Catharine II, it received the name of the government of Reval, but, in 1797, was again called the government of Esthonia. Much has been written on the unhappy situation of the serfs in Livonia and Esthonia. The Esthonians live in mean habitations, are rough and hardy, and profess the Christian religion. The emperor Alexander did much towards alleviating the condition of the peasants; and servitude has been, to a certain extent, abolished in this country.

ESTRAYS and WAIFS. Estrays are any valuable beasts, not wild, found within a lordship, and whose owner is not known, such as are commonly impounded, and not claimed. They are then to be proclaimed in the church and two nearest market towns, on two market days, and, not being claimed by the owner, belong to the king, and now commonly, by grant of the crown, to the lord of the manor, or the liberty.-Waifs are goods which are stolen, and waved, or left by the felon on his being pursued, for fear of being apprehended, and forfeited to the king or lord of the manor.

ESTRÉES, Gabrielle d' (duchess of Beaufort), the mistress of Henry IV of France, born about 1571, was the daughter of Antoine d'Estrées, a descendant of one of the noblest houses in Picardy, for a long time grand maître de l'artillerie, who distinguished himself in the defence of Noyon against the duke of Mayenne, for which Henry IV made him governor of the Isle de France. Gabrielle was about 20 years of age when Henry first saw her on a visit to Cœuvres castle; and her beauty immediately captivated him. Gabrielle, however, who was attached to the duke of Bellegarde, was at first little inclined to gratify the wishes of the king. But Henry still urged his suit, and often stole by the sentinels of his enemies, in the dress of a peasant, to see the object of his love. The heart of the lady was at length moved by such ardor and de

votion. She became the mistress of the chivalric monarch, who never loved any other woman so passionately. To escape the severe scrutiny of her father, Henry married her to a nobleman named Damerval, of Liancourt; but, says Sully, il sut empêcher la consommation du mariage, and subsequently dissolved the marriage, on the ground of Damerval's impotency, although this nobleman had had 14 children by a former wife. Henry intended to raise Gabrielle to the throne as his lawful wife. For this purpose, he not only procured a divorce from Margaret of Valois, but also raised the county of Beaufort to a duchy, which he bestowed on Gabrielle, thus giving her a high rank at court. This design was strongly opposed by Sully, who often represented to the monarch the bad consequences of such a measure. Gabrielle, therefore, became his bitter enemy, and, instigated by the enemies of the minister, she once so far forgot herself as to urge the king to discharge him. Henry's reply was, "By God, madam, if I must lose one of you, I would rather give up ten mistresses like you, than one servant like him." So ardent, however, was his passion for Gabrielle, that he once wrote to her in a moment of danger, "If I am conquered, you know me too well to believe that I shall flee. My last thought shall be God's, my last but one yours." Notwithstanding the determination of the king, and the wishes of Gabrielle, their marriage never took place. Just before Easter, in 1599, when negotiations were already in train for the divorce of the king, she retired from court, by the advice of René Bénoit, the king's confessor, and went to Paris to spend Passion week. On Maundy Thursday, having eaten an orange after dinner, she was suddenly seized with convulsions, which distorted her beautiful countenance, and, on Saturday, she died in the most excruciating torments. Apoplexy, with convulsions, was the cause assigned for her death; but no one can doubt that she was poisoned. The king's grief for her loss was excessive; and, what is seldom the case, the royal mistress was universally lamented. Her amiable disposition, the gentleness of her character, and the modesty which prevented her from meddling with public affairs, won her general favor. She had three children by the king, Cæsar and Alexander, afterwards dukes of Vendome, and a daughter, Catharine Henrietta, afterwards the wife of the duke of Elbeuf. Her biography, which appeared some years ago, in France, is accompanied by

an interesting correspondence between Gabrielle and her royal lover.

ESTRÉES, Louis César (duc d'), marshal of France, and minister of state, born at Paris, in 1695. He fought against the Spaniards, under the duke of Berwick, and distinguished himself so much that he was raised to the rank of field-marshal, and inspector-general of the cavalry. In the war of 1741, he obtained the confidence of marshal Saxe, by the passage of the Maine at Seligenstadt, his conduct at the battle of Fontenoy, and the sieges of Mons and Charleroi. In 1756, he received the baton of marshal of France, and appeared in Germany at the head of 100,000 men. His audience with Louis XV, closed with these words: "By the 1st of July, I shall have driven the enemy beyond the Weser, and shall be preparing to enter Hanover." He kept his word, and gained a decisive victory over the duke of Cumberland at Hastenbeck. The Hanoverians were preparing to leave the electorate, when the marshal was recalled by court intrigues, and succeeded by Richelieu. After the defeat at Minden, he was sent to Giesen, where he assumed no command, but was content to assist Contades with his advice. At the close of the war, he was created duke. He died 1771, without issue. He merited his dignities by his services, and was not less esteemed as a citizen than as a soldier.

ESTREMADURA; the name of a Spanish and a Portuguese province. The Spanish province of

Estremadura is bounded N. by Leon and Old Castile, E. by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by Portugal; about 90 miles each way. It formerly made part of Portugal, but, being separated from that country, it is sometimes called Estremadura of Castile. The country is mountainous, and the air in summer is exceedingly hot, wholesome to the natives, but insupportable to strangers. Spring water is scarce, and the inhabitants are compelled to use principally that of ponds. The soil is fertile in grain, grapes, and other fruits. Cattle and fine wool constitute their principal commerce. The principal towns are Badajoz, Merida, Truxillo, Xerez de los Caballeros, Ellerena, Coria, and Placentia. Population in 1797, 428,393. Square miles, 14,478. This country has furnished excellent generals to Spain.

Estremadura, the province of Portugal, is bounded N. by the province of Beira, E. and S. by Alentejo, and W. by the

ocean. Its mean length, from north to south, is 124 miles; its width 77 miles. The Tagus divides it into two nearly equal parts. The northern part is mountainous. It contains some mineral springs. Earthquakes are more frequent here than in any other part of Portugal. The soil in general is fertile, but in the south sandy. Agriculture is so neglected, that the production hardly suffices for the consumption. Cattle abound in the mountains, fish in the rivers, and metals in the earth; but industry is wanting. The population is about 700,500, and is less active than that of the northern provinces.

ETANIA, in the Basque language, signifies dwelling, and is the origin of the terminations of Lusitania, Aquitania, &c.

ETCHING; one species of engraving on copper, the lines being corroded in with aqua fortis, instead of being cut with a graver, which, for many purposes, is superior to engraving; but there are others in which the subjects must be graved, not etched. In general, in engravings on copper executed in the stroke manner, etching and graving are combined; the plate is begun by etching, and finished with the graver. Landscapes, architecture and machinery receive most assistance from etching, which is not so applicable to portraits and historical designs, though in these, also, it has a place. (For an account of the process of etching, see Engraving.)

ETEOCLES and POLYNICES; sons of Edipus and Jocasta. After their father's banishment, A. C. 1230, they agreed to rule in Thebes, each a year alternately. Eteocles violated this compact, and Polynices fled to implore the assistance of Adrastus, king of Argos, who marched against Thebes, with Polynices and six other Grecian princes. The city made an obstinate defence. The two brothers fell by each other's hand; and Creon, their uncle, ascended the throne of Thebes. He prohibited the interment of Polynices, under penalty of death; but Antigone, sister of the deceased, yielding to the voice of nature, resolved to perform this last rite for her deceased brother. She was discovered, and buried alive by the order of Creon. This act of cruelty recoiled on himself; for his son, Hæmon, who was in love with her, killed himself on her grave. (See Thebes.)

ETHELBERT, king of Kent, succeeded his father, Hermenric, about 560, and soon reduced all the states, except Northumberland, to the condition of his depend

ants.

In his reign Christianity was first

introduced into England. Ethelbert married Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, king of Paris, and a Christian princess, who, stipulating for the free exercise of her religion, brought over with her a French bishop. Her conduct was so exemplary as to prepossess the king and his court in favor of the Christian religion. In consequence, pope Gregory the Great sent a mission of forty monks, headed by Augustin, to preach the gospel in the island. They were well received, and numbers were converted; and the king himself, at length, submitted to be baptized. Civilization and knowledge followed Christianity, and Ethelbert enacted a body of laws, which was the first written code promulgated by the northern conquerors. He died in 616, and was succeeded by his son Edbald.

ETHELBERT, king of England, son of Ethelwolf, succeeded to the government of the eastern side of the kingdom in 857, and in 860, on the death of his brother Ethelbald, became sole king. His reign was much disturbed by the inroads of the Danes, whom he repulsed with vigor, but without success, as, whenever they were driven from one part of the country, they ravaged another. He died in 866.

ETHELRED I, king of England, son of Ethelwolf, succeeded his brother Ethelbert in 866. The Danes became so formidable, in his reign, as to threaten the conquest of the whole kingdom. Assisted by his brother Alfred, Ethelred drove them from the centre of Mercia, where they had penetrated; but, the Mercians refusing to act with him, he was obliged to trust to the West Saxons alone, his hereditary subjects. After various successes, the invaders continually increasing in numbers, Ethelred died, in consequence of a wound received in an action with them, in 871.

ETHELRED II, king of England, son of Edgar, succeeded his brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978, and, for his want of vigor and capacity, was surnamed the Unready. During his reign, the Danes, who had for some time ceased their inroads, renewed them with great fury. After having repeatedly obtained their departure by presents of money, he effected, in 1002, a massacre of all the Danes in England. Such revenge only rendered his enemies more violent; and, in 1003, Sweyn and his Danes carried fire and sword through the country. They were again bribed to depart; but, upon a new invasion, Sweyn obliged the nobles to swear allegiance to him as king of England; while Ethelred,

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