with the horn, in a press of such power, that, allowing a man's strength to be 200 pounds, it will be equal to 43,000 pounds. By this process, the horn receives considerable extension. If the horn is not previously black, the handles are dyed black by means of a bath of logwood and green vitriol. The clear horn handles are sometimes stained so as to imitate the tortoise-shell.-The manufacture of penknives is divided into three departments: the first is the forging of the blades, the spring and the iron scales; the second, the grinding and polishing of the blades; and the third, the handling, which consists in fitting up all the parts, and finishing the knife. The blades are made of the best cast steel, and hardened and tempered to about the same degree with that of razors. In grinding, they are made a little more concave on one side than the other: in other respects, they are treated in a similar way to razors. The handles are covered with horn, ivory, and sometimes wood; but the most durable covering is stag-horn. The most general fault in penknives is that of being too soft. The temper ought to be not higher than a straw color, as it seldom happens that a penknife is so hard as to snap on the edge. The beauty and elegance of polished steel is nowhere displayed to more advantage than in the manufacture of the finer kinds of scissors. The steel employed for the more valuable scissors should be cast steel of the choicest qualities: it must possess hardness and uniformity of texture, for the sake of assuming a fine polish; and great tenacity when hot, for the purpose of forming the bow or ring of the scissors, which requires to be extended from a solid piece, having a hole previously punched through it. It ought also to be very tenacious when cold, to allow that delicacy of form observed in those scissors termed ladies' scissors. After the scissors are forged as near to the same size as the eye of the workman can ascertain, they are paired, and the two sides fitted together. The bows and some other parts are filed to their intended form; the blades are also roughly ground, and the two sides properly adjusted to each other, after being bound together with wire, and hardened up to the bows. They are afterwards heated till they become of a purple color, which indicates their proper temper. Almost all the remaining part of the work is performed at the grinding mill, with the stone, the lap, the polisher and the brush. The very large scissors are partly of iron and partly of steel, the shanks and bows

being of the former. These, as well as those all of steel, which are not hardened all over, cannot be polished: an inferior sort of lustre, however, is given to them by means of a burnish of hardened, polished steel, which is very easily distinguished from the real polish by the irregularity of the surface. (For swords, see Sword.)

CUTTER; a small vessel, furnished with one mast, and rigged as a sloop. Many of these fast-sailing vessels are used by smugglers, and are also employed for the purpose of apprehending them. In the latter case, they are called revenue cutters. The clippers-a kind of vessels built at Baltimore-are particularly adapted for fast sailing, but require great skill in navigating them, to avoid being upset. (See Boat, Ship.)

CUTTY-STOOL; a low stool; the stool of repentance; a small gallery in the Scottish kirks, placed near the roof, and painted black, in which offenders against chastity sit during service, professing repentance, and listening to the minister's rebukes.

CUT-WATER; the sharp part of the head of a ship below the beak, so called because it cuts or divides the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not come too suddenly to the breadth of the ship, which would retard it.

CUVIER, George Leopold Christian Frederic Dagobert, baron of; born Aug. 25, 1769, at Montbéliard, then belonging to the duchy of Würtemburg. His bril liant talents very early excited great expectations. His father was an officer. As the son's health was too feeble to allow him to become a soldier, he resolved to be a clergyman. He was obliged to pass an examination for the stipend, by the help of which he expected to study at Tübingen. A malicious examiner rejected him. The affair, however, was marked by so much injustice, that prince Frederic, brother of the duke, and governor of the district, thought it his duty to compensate Cuvier by a place in the Charles academy at Stuttgart. Here he gave up his intention of becoming a clergyman. In Stuttgart, he studied at first the science of law, though he was particularly fond of natural history. To this period of his life he is indebted for his accurate knowledge of the German language and literature. The narrow circumstances of his parents compelled him to accept the office of private instructer in the family of count D'Hericy, in Normandy. Here he was at liberty to devote his leisure to natural science. Cu

vier soon perceived that zoology was far from that perfection to which Linnæus had carried botany, and to which mineralogy had been carried by the united labors of the philosophers of Germany and France. The first desideratum was a careful observation of all the organs of animals, in order to ascertain their mutual dependence, and their influence on animal life; then a confutation of the fanciful systems which had obscured rather than illustrated the study. Examinations of the marine productions, with which the neighboring ocean abundantly supplied him, served him as a suitable preparation. A natural classification of the numerous classes of vermes (Linn.) was his first labor, and the clearness with which he gave an account of his observations and ingenious views, procured him an acquaintance with all the naturalists of Paris. Geoffry St. Hilaire invited him to Paris, opened to him the collections of natural history, over which he presided, took part with him in the publication of several works on the classification of the mammalia, and placed him at the central school in Paris, May, 1795. The institute, being reëstablished the same year, received him as a member of the first class. For the use of the central school, he wrote his Tableau Élémentaire de l'Histoire Naturelle des Animaux (1798), by which he laid the foundation of his future fame. From this time, he was considered one of the first zoologists of Europe. He soon after displayed his brilliant talents as professor of comparative anatomy. His profound knowledge was not less remarkable than his elevated views, and the elegance with which he illustrated them before a mixed audience. In the lecture-room of the Lycée, where he lectured several years on natural history, was assembled all the accomplished society of Paris, attracted by the ingenuity of his classifications, and by his extensive surveys of all the kingdoms of nature. In January, 1800, he justly received the place formerly occupied by D'Aubenton, in the college de France. His merits did not escape the sagacity of Napoleon. In the department of public instruction, in which, one after another, he filled the most important offices, he exercised much influence by his useful improvements and indefatigable activity. He delivered a report very honorable to Germany, in 1811, when he returned from a journey in Holland and Germany, as superintendent of instruction. He was accompanied, in this journey, by Noël. In 1813, the emperor appointed him maître des requêtes to the

council of state, and committed to his care the most important affairs in Mentz. Louis XVIII confirmed him in his former offices, and raised him to the rank of counsellor. As such, he belonged at first to the committee of legislation, and afterwards to that of the interior. As a politician, he drew upon himself the reproaches of the liberals. In general, the political course of Cuvier forms such a contrast with his scientific one, and is, besides, of so little importance, that we are very willing to pass it by in silence. The measures of the abbé Frayssinous, then chancellor of the university of Paris, determined him to resign the office of universitycounsellor, in December, 1822. Notwithstanding his political engagements, Cuvier devoted himself continually to the study of natural history, which he has extended by his discoveries. We mention only his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, 1821-24; 3d edition, 1826, 5 vols., 4to., with plates (the classical introduction to this work is printed separately); Discours sur les Révolutions de la Surface du Globe, et sur les Changemens qu'elles ont produit dans le Règne animal (3d edition, Paris, 1825); also, Le Règne animal (1817, 4 vols.); Leçons d'Anatomie Comparée, recueillies par Duméril et Duvernoy (1805, 5 vols.); Recherches anatomiques sur les Reptiles regardés encore comme douteux (1807, 4to.); Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire de l'Anatomie des Mollusques (1816, 4to.). As perpetual secretary, &c., of the academy, in the class of physical sciences, he has pronounced éloges on the deceased members of the institute. The Recueil d'Éloges Historiques (Paris, 1819, 2 vols.) contains models worthy of imitation. The French academy received him, in consequence, among their 40 members. Almost all the learned societies of the world have sent him honorary diplomas. France is indebted to him for the establishment of a cabinet of comparative anatomy, which is the finest osteological collection in Europe.

CUXHAVEN; a village in Rützebüttel, a bailiwick of Hamburg, at the mouth of the river Elbe. It is important for all navigators going to Bremen or Hamburg. Its lighthouse is 8° 43′ 1′′ E. lon., and 53° 52′ 51′′ N. lat., 61 miles W.N. W. of Hamburg. The harbor is large and commodious, one of the safest on the coast, and is resorted to in cases of danger. Here vessels generally take pilots to go up the river to Hamburg, &c. These pilots are privileged, and, by their statutes, are compelled always to keep a yacht out at sea,

near the outermost buoy, called the red buoy, with men ready to conduct any vessel which may demand assistance. These pilots very often go as far as the channel, and even through it, to meet vessels. From this village, there is a regular packet line, maintained by the English government, to Harwich. Here is also a quarantine, where vessels are often subjected to much unnecessary delay; sent to Norway, for instance, to take an airing, when they are bound to Hamburg. A bathing-house has been established here, with many other improvements, by the senator Abendroth. În the middle ages, a family named Lappen were in the habit of sailing from this place for the commission of piracy. Hamburg conquered it in the 14th century. With this city, it came under the French dominion, and, in 1814, was again declared a province of Hamburg. The whole bailiwick of Rützebűttel is subject to, not a component part of, Hamburg.

CUYABA, OF JESUS DE CUYABA; a town of Brazil, capital of Matto Grosso, on the river Cuyaba, nearly 300 miles above its entrance into the Paraguay; 280 miles W. Villa Rica; population, 30,000. In the neighborhood of this town are the most western mining stations in Brazil, long celebrated for the quantity of gold they produce. The town is well provided with meat, fruits and vegetables, and the surrounding country is fruitful.

CYANOGEN. (See Prussic Acid.)

CYBELE was originally a particular goddess of the Phrygians, like Isis, the symbol of the moon, and, what is nearly connected with this, of the fruitfulness of the earth; for which reason she is confounded with Rhea, whose worship originated in Crete, and in whom personified nature was revered. When the worship of Cybele was introduced among the Greeks, the goddess was already surrounded with a cloud of mythological traditions. According to Diodorus, Cybele was the daughter of the Phrygian king Mæon, and his wife Dindyma. At her birth, her father, vexed that the child was not a boy, exposed her upon mount Cybelus, where she was nursed by lions and panthers, and afterwards found and brought up by the wives of the herdsmen. She invented fifes and drums, with which she cured the diseases of beasts and children, became intimate with Marsyas, and fell violently in love with Atys. (See Atys.) She was afterwards recognised and received by her parents. Her father, discovering her love for Atys, had him seized and ex

ecuted, and left his body unburied. The grief of Cybele, on this occasion, deranged her understanding. She wandered about, in search of Atys, with dishevelled hair, escorted, by the sound of the drums and fifes which she had invented, through various countries, even to the Hyperboreans, the most distant inhabitants of the North. During her absence, a famine arose in Phrygia, which did not cease until divine honors were paid to Cybele, by the command of the oracle, and the statue of Atys interred, as his body could not be found. Some traditions say that Atys, in a fit of insanity, emasculated himself. Other traditions give a different account of the cause of his misfortune. In memory of him, the priests of Cybele were eunuchs. Her worship was celebrated with a violent noise of instruments, and rambling through fields and woods. In Crete, she was confounded with Rhea. She was also blended with the old Latin goddess Ops. Her original statue was nothing but a dark, quadrangular stone. Afterwards she was represented as a matron, with a mural crown on her head, in reference to the improved condition of men, arising from agriculture, and their union into cities. A common attribute of the goddess is the veil about her head, which refers to the mysterious and incomprehensible in nature. In her right hand she often holds a staff, as an emblem of her power, and, in her left, a Phrygian drum. Sometimes a few ears of com stand near her. The sun, also, is sometimes represented in her right hand, and the crescent of the moon in her left. We sometimes see her in a chariot, drawn by lions; or else she sits upon a lion, and, as omnipotent nature, she holds a thunderbolt; or a lion lies near her. (See Atalanta.) These symbols are all representations of her dominion, and of the introduction of civilization, by her means, the period of barbarism.

in

CYCLADES, in ancient geography; a group of islands in the Archipelago, S. E. of Euboea and Attica, inhabited mostly by Greeks. Nearly in the middle lies the largest island, Naxos. (q. v.) The most southerly is Melos. (q. v.) Paros (q. v.) also is one of this fertile and charming group.

CYCLE (Greek Kikλos, a circle) is used for every uniformly returning succession of the same events. On such successions or cycles of years rests all chronology, particularly the calendar. Our common solar year, determined by the periodical return of the sun to the same point in the

ecliptic, every body knows, contains 52 weeks and I day, and leap-year a day more. Consequently, in different years, the same day of the year cannot fall upon the same day of the week; but, as, for example, the year 1814 began with Saturday, 1815 with Sunday, 1816 with Monday; but 1817, because preceded by a leapyear, began, not with Tuesday, but with Wednesday. If we count only common years, it is manifest that, from seven years to seven years, every year would begin again with the same day of the week as the seventh year before; or, to express the same in other words, after seven years, the dominical letter (q. v.) would return in the same order. But as every fourth year, instead of a common year, is a leapyear, this can only take place after 4 × 7, or 28 years. Such a period of 28 years is called a solar cycle, and serves to show the day of the week falling on the first day of January in every year. For this purpose, it is only requisite to know with what day of the week a particular year began, and then to prepare a table for the first days of the 27 following years. It is the custom now to fix the beginning of the solar cycle at the ninth year B. C., which was a leap-year, and began with Monday. If you wish to know what day of the week the new-year's day of any year of our reckoning is, you have only to add nine to the number of the year, and then, after dividing this sum by 28, the quotient gives, of course, the number of complete cycles, and the remainder shows what year of the solar period the given year is, of which the table above-mentioned gives the day of the week with which it begins. But this reckoning is only adapted to the Julian calendar. In the Gregorian, it is interrupted by the circumstance that, in 400 years, the last year of the century is three times a common year. Hence this reckoning will not give the day of the week for the first day of the year; but, from 1582 (the commencement of the Gregorian calendar) to 1700, for the 11th, from 1700 to 1800 for the 12th, in the 19th century for the 13th day of the year, and so on, from which we must then reckon back to the new-year's day. Hence it is far more convenient to prepare a table for the beginning of a century (for example, for 1801, which began with Thursday), and divide by 28 the number of years from that to the given year, and, with the remainder, seek in the table the day of the week for the first day of the year. Besides this, another cycle is necessary for the determination of festival days,

by the aid of which the feast of Easter, by which all the movable feasts are regulated, is to be reckoned. Easter depends on the first full moon after the vernal equinox. (See Calendar.) The lunar cycle is a period of 19 years, after which the new moon falls again on the same day of the month. January 2, 1813, there was a new moon; January 2, 1832, there will be a new moon again. As the time from one new moon to another, as astronomy teaches, is about 293 days, a table of the new moons for 19 years may be very easily prepared. It is only necessary to observe that this lunar cycle always begins with a year, of which the first new moon falls on the first of January, and that this was the case the first year B. C. Divide by 19 the number of the year plus 1, and the remainder will show what year in the lunar period the given year is. The number of the year is called the golden number. (See Calendar, and Epact.) Besides these two cycles, which are indispensable for the calculations of the calendar, there are some others, several of them known by the name of periods. (See the accounts given under the heads Calendar and Era.)

The Germans make much use of the word Cyclus in science, meaning by it any series of events, works, observations, &c., which forms a whole in itself, and reminds us of a circle; thus they speak of the Cyclus of works in a certain science, and Cyclus of discoveries by a philosopher, &c., wherever the series forms a well-connected whole.

CYCLIC POETS. (See Greek Literature.) CYCLOID; the line described by a moving wheel. Imagine a circle which is rolled perpendicularly along a straight line, till the point first at rest is brought to rest again, after an entire revolution. The curve, thus described by this point, is called a cycloid, because every point in the circumference of a revolving wheel describes a similar curve. The circle is called the generating circle; the line on which it is described, the base of the cycloid. The length of the cycloid is always four times the diameter of the generating circle, and its area three times the area of this circle. This line is very important in the higher branches of mechanics. Imagine a pendulum suspended by a thread, in such a way that, in the swinging of the pendulum between two plates, each of which is bent in the form of a cycloid, the thread rolls and unrolls itself. Then the longest vibrations will be performed in the same time as the shortest, producing an isochronism, and the cycloid is hence called an iso