nis usurpations, the freedom of the press, which he had himself introduced, was subjected to restrictions. But the friends of Struensee were already becoming indisposed towards him, and the people began to show symptoms of dissatisfaction. Struensee was conscious of his danger, and took some precautions to defend himself. But on the night of Jan. 16, 1772, the queen, the favorite, Brandt, and their other partisans, were seized. The officer who commanded the guard (an old enemy of Struensee) had led his officers into the palace, declaring that the king had commanded him to arrest the queen. Count Rantzau-Aschberg then penetrated to the chamber of the king, waked him, and told him that his life was in danger, and that he must sign an order which the count presented to him. The feeble king obeyed, and the queen was conducted to Kronenburg. An extraordinary commission was instituted for the trial of Struensee, consisting in part of his personal enemies. The proceedings were pushed with severity; and, on the 25th of April, he was condemned to lose his right hand and his head, his body to be quartered and exposed upon the wheel, and his head and hand to be stuck upon a stake. When informed that the king had confirmed the sentence, he received the news with composure, and was executed on the 28th of April, 1772.-See Höst's Count Struensee and his Ministry (in Danish, 1824, and more complete in German, 1826), and Mémoires de Falkenskiold (Paris, 1826).

STRUTT, Joseph, an English antiquary, born, in 1749, at Springfield, in Essex, was articled to an engraver, and obtained the gold and silver medals of the royal academy. He published, in 1773, his work entitled the Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England (4to.), containing representations of the English monarchs from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. This was followed by Horda Angel Cynnan, or a complete view of the manners, customs, arms, habits, &c., of the English from the arrival of the Saxons to the times of Henry VIII, &c. (1774, 1775 and 1776, 3 vols., with 157 plates). In 1777 and 1778, he published a Chronicle of England, which he meant to extend to six volumes, but dropped the design for want of encouragement. His Biographical Dictionary of Engravers appeared in 1785 and 1786, in two volumes, and his Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England, &c., in 1796 and 1799 (4to.). In 1801, he

published his last and favorite work, entitled the Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (with forty plates, new octavo edition, with 140 plates, 1827). He died in London, in October, 1802, aged fifty-three. His modest character scarcely met, during his life-time, with the encouragement it deserved. He left some manuscripts, from which have since been published his Queen Hoo Hall, a romance, and Ancient Times, a drama (4 vols., 12mo.); also the Test of Guilt, or Traits of Ancient Superstition, a dramatic tale.

STRYCHNIA; a vegetable alkali, found in the fruit of two species of the strychnos. It is obtained by the following process: The bean is rasped down as small as possible, and exposed to the action of nitric ether in a Papin's digester. What remains after the digestion is treated with alcohol, and the alcohol is evaporated to dryness, and the residue dissolved in water. To the aqueous solution potash is added, which throws down the strychnia in the form of a white crystalline precipitate. This alkali has also been extracted from the upas poison. The properties of strychnia, in a state of perfect purity, are as follows: It has a crystalline structure (often presenting four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids), is of a white color, has an intolerably bitter taste, and leaves a metallic impression in the mouth; it is destitute of odor, and is not altered by exposure to the air; it is neither fusible nor volatile, except at temperatures at which it undergoes decomposition. It is very little soluble in cold water, 100,000 parts of that liquid dissolving only fifteen parts of the alkali; but it dissolves in 2500 times its weight of boiling water. When it is introduced into the stomach, it acts with prodigious energy. A locked jaw is induced in a very short time, and the animal is speedily destroyed. Half a grain of strychnia blown into the throat of a rabbit, proved fatal in five minutes, and brought on locked jaw in two minutes. A great variety of salts of this alkali may be obtained by treating it with the different acids, and by double decomposition.--Sulphate of strychnia crystallizes in cubes, and is soluble in less than ten times its weight of cold water. It consists of sulphuric acid 90.5 and strychnia 9.5. Muriate of strychnia crystallizes in very small needles, and is more soluble in water than the sulphate. trate of strychnia acts with more violence upon animals than the pure alkali. Solutions of the salts of strychnia, when

Ni

exposed to a heat of 212°, become volatile.

STRYPE, John, a voluminous contributor to English ecclesiastical history and biography, was born in 1643, and educated at St. Paul's school, whence, in 1661, he was removed to Jesus college, and afterwards to Catharine hall, Cambridge. He graduated M. A. in 1666, and, taking orders, was nominated to the perpetual curacy of Theydon Boys, in Essex. His works are, Ecclesiastical Monuments (in 3 vols., folio); Annals of the Reformation (4 vols., folio, 1709-1731); an augmented edition of Stow's Survey of London (in 2 vols., folio, 1720); and Lives of Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgift, sir John Cheke, sir Thomas Smith, and bishop Aylmer. He was for many years rector of Hackney, in which he spent the latter part of his life, which was prolonged to the age of ninety-four.

STUART. The Stuart or Stewart family was descended from the great AngloNorman family of Fitz Alan, in England. The dignity of seneschal or steward of the king's household having become hereditary in a branch of this family, settled in Scotland, the title was converted into a surname. Walter, the sixth high steward, married Marjory, daughter of Robert (see Bruce, Robert); and, on the extinction of the male line of Bruce, Robert Stewart, their only son,ascended the Scottish throne (1371) under the title of Robert II. His grandson, James I (q. v.), was murdered in his bed, in 1437. His successors were James II, killed in a war with England (1460); James III, who fell in battle against his rebellious subjects (1488); James IV, who perished fighting against the English (1513); James V (q. v.), died of chagrin on account of the rebellion of his subjects. His last words were, on hearing of the birth of his daughter Mary, "God's will be done. It came with a lass; it will go with a lass,"-alluding to the crown, which had come into his family by marriage. That daughter (see Mary Stuart) perished on the scaffold, and her son James VI (I of England) united the crowns of England and Scotland (1603). James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II, Mary and Anne (see the articles) wore the double crown of the two kingdoms until 1714, 343 years from the period when the family ascended the Scottish throne, and 111 from the time of its accession to that of England. James II was deposed in 1688, and his son James Edward (see Stuart, James Edward), who styled himself James III, died in exile,

after ineffectual attempts to regain the throne of his ancestors. James III's son, Charles Edward (see Edward, Charles), died childless, in 1788. His only brother, Henry, cardinal of York, died in 1807, and with him the house of Stuart became extinct.

STUART, John; earl of Bute. (See Bute.) STUART, Arabella. (See Arabella Stuart.)

were

STUART, James Edward Francis; the eldest son of James II, by his second wife, Mary of Modena, born in London, June 10, 1688. He was but five months old when his father was dethroned; and his mother, with her infant, fled to France, where Louis XIV afforded an asylum to the exiled family at St. Germains. (See James II.) An attempt was made at the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, to ensure the restoration of this young prince to the throne of his ancestors, which was defeated only by the opposition of his father—as William III had agreed to procure the recognition of the prince of Wales, as he was styled, as his successor; but James II rejected the proposal, observing that he could support with resignation the usurpation of his son-in-law, but he could not suffer his son to become a party to it. On the death of the ex-king, in 1701, Louis XIV recognised his son as king of England, by the title of James III, and a proclamation, in the name of the latter, was addressed to the English nation; but no effective measures adopted in his favor. The death of William III (q. v.) revived the hopes of his party; but nothing beyond unavailing negotiation took place till 1708, when a maritime expedition against Scotland was fitted out, in which the prince embarked, under the command of the chevalier Forbin. This armament, however, being attacked by an English fleet of superior force, returned to France without landing the invading forces; and the young adventurer (who assumed the name of the chevalier de St. George) joined the French army in Flanders, and distinguished himself by his valor at the battle of Malplaquet. In the latter part of the reign of Anne, repeated intrigues were set on foot to secure the restoration of her brother, or his succession to the crown after her death; but they proved entirely abortive, and, on the treaty of Utrecht taking place, in 1713, he was obliged to submit to a temporary retirement from France; and when he returned to Paris, he resided there incognito. Had not the decease of queen Anne been speedily followed by

that of Louis XIV, in 1715, the invasion of Scotland by the Pretender, as he was called, might have led to a very different result from that which actually took place. (See Anne.) The regent duke of Orleans wished to maintain peace with George I, and the British ambassador at Paris was informed of the projects of the chevalier de St. George by the abbé Strickland, one of his agents, who betrayed his confidence. The earl of Mar, in Scotland, raised the standard of revolt against the house of Hanover, proclaiming the heir of the Stuarts king, under the title of James III; and the latter, embarking at Dunkirk, made a descent on the Scottish coasts; but he soon perceived that success was hopeless, and was obliged to return to France. Even that kingdom no longer yielded him an asylum, and he was forced to remove, first to Avignon, and then to Rome. In consequence of the disputes which occurred between the duke of Orleans and cardinal Alberoni, the prince was, a few years after, invited to Spain, where he was well received by Philip V; but the visit had no important influence on his affairs, and Rome again became his retreat, as it was his future residence. In 1720, he married the princess Mary Casimira Sobieska, grand-daughter of the famous John Sobieski, king of Poland. This union was not attended with domestic happiness, and a separation between the husband and wife was with difficulty prevented by the interference of cardinal Alberoni, then a resident at Rome. He took no active part in the expedition against Scotland, under his son, in 1745; and the latter part of his life was dedicated to exercises of piety. He died Jan. 2, 1766.

STUART, Charles Edward. (See Edward, Charles.)

STUART, Henry Benedict Maria Clement, cardinal of York, younger son of James Edward, and the last descendant of the royal line of the Stuarts, was born at Rome, in 1725, and, being destined for the church, the pope bestowed on him the right to hold benefices without receiving the ecclesiastical tonsure. In 1745, when the last effort was made for the restoration of his family, he assumed the command of troops assembled at Dunkirk, to aid the operations of his brother in Great Britain; but the news of the battle of Culloden prevented the embarkation of this armament, and prince Henry returned to Rome. The visions of regal splendor, in which he might have indulged, being thus dissipated, he took holy orders,

and, in 1747, pope Benedict XIV raised him to the purple. He was subsequently made chancellor of the basilica of St. Peter, and bishop of Frascati. On the death of his brother, in 1788, he assumed the barren title to which the family had aspired, and caused a medal to be struck, with the inscription, Henricus Nonus Angliæ Rex, and on the obverse, Gratia Dei, non Voluntate Hominum. When the French conquered Italy, he was obliged to flee to Venice, and was indebted for his support to a pension from the English court. His death took place in 1807. The valuable papers of his grandfather and his father, which had remained in his possession, were, after his decease, sent to England.

STUART, doctor Gilbert, an eminent historical writer, born at Edinburgh, in 1742, was educated in the university of that city, where his father was professor of humanity, and was destined for the legal profession, which he relinquished for that of an author. In 1767, he published an Historical Dissertation concerning the Antiquity of the British Constitution, the merit of which procured him the degree of LL. D. This was followed, a few years after, by his View of Society in Europe, in its Progress from Rudeness to Refinement. Being disappointed in an attempt to obtain the professorship of public law in the university of Edinburgh, he removed to London; and, from 1768 to 1774, he was a contributor to the Monthly Review. He then returned to his native city, and established the Edinburgh Magazine and Review; but his illiberal and virulent criticisms ruined the credit of the work, which was discontinued in 1776. About this time,he published his Observations concerning the Public Law and Constitutional History of Scotland (8vo.); the History of the Reformation in Scotland (1780, 4to.); and the History of Scotland (1782, 2 vols.). In the year last mentioned, he again repaired to London, and engaged as a writer; but habits of intemperance had undermined his constitution, and he once more returned to his native place, where he died in 1786. His works display erudition, industry and sound judgment, wherever the latter quality is not influenced by his jealousy and hatred of contemporary writers.

STUART, James; a distinguished antiquary and architectural draughtsman, born in London, in 1713. His father having died when he was young, he assisted his mother by practising fan-painting. Prompted by his inclination, he studied

anatomy, geometry, and other branches of science; and, having, by his industry, provided for the support of his younger brother and sister, set out, with a very small supply of money, for Rome. He supported himself during his travels by the exercise of his talents, and at Rome made acquaintance with Nicholas Revett, a skilful architect, with whom he went to Athens, in 1751. Here they remained till the latter part of 1753, making drawings and taking measurements of architectural relics. After visiting Salonica, Smyrna, and some of the Egean islands, they returned to England, in the beginning of 1755. The result of their labors appeared in the work entitled the Antiquities of Athens (1st vol. 1762, folio; 4th vol. 1816). A new and improved edition of this valuable work has recently been published. Stuart died in 1788.

STUCCO (Italian) in architecture; a composition of white marble pulverized and mixed with plaster of lime, which, being sifted and wrought up with water, is used like common plaster. Architectural and sculptural ornaments, such as fruits, flowers, garlands, festoons, &c., are made of it. In the interior of buildings, stucco work is generally applied to the ceilings of apartments, the mouldings, &c. On the exterior, it should be confined to those parts which are not much exposed to the rain. In some countries, a stucco of common mortar and of plaster is applied to the outside of houses, and is extremely durable. Vitruvius seems to mention stucco in the second, third and sixth chapters of the seventh book, under the name of opus albarium, or opus coronarium. Immediately after the stucco is mixed, it forms a very soft and ductile paste, which, however, soon hardens, and then the desired form is given to it with moulds or with a little spatula of iron. During this operation, it continues to harden, and may even be cut; and at this period, those parts of the ornaments are executed which demand a nice finish. In a few days, it acquires the consistence of dry clay, and ultimately becomes hard like stone, and takes a beautiful polish.

STUDDING-SAILS; certain sails extended, in moderate and steady breezes, beyond the skirts of the principal sails, where they appear as wings to the yard-arms. The top-mast and top-gallant studdingsails are those which are set on the outside of the top-sails and top-gallant sails.

STUDIES. (See Drawing.)

STUFF, in commerce, is a general name for all kinds of fabrics of gold, silver, silk,

wool, hair, cotton, or thread, manufactured on the loom; of which number are velvets, brocades, mohair, taffeties, cloth, serges, &c. The term is also used more particularly to denote slight woollen articles used principally for linings and women's apparel.

STUHLWEISSENBURG; or, in Hungarian, SZEKES FEJERVAR; in Sclavonic, BIELIGRAD; a royal free town of Hungary, capital of a county of the same name, thirty miles south-west of Buda; lon. 18° 25' E.; lat. 47° 12′ N.; population, 12,244. It was built in the eleventh century, and, during five centuries, was the place where the kings of Hungary were crowned, and on that account called Alba Regalis. It is now declined from its former importance, and has a mean appearance, though it contains some good buildings. It has a Catholic gymnasium and some manufactures.

STUM, in the wine trade, is a name for the unfermented juice of the grape, when it has been several times racked off and separated from the sediment. The casks are, for this purpose, well fumigated with brimstone, in order to prevent fermentation, through which the juice would become wine.

STURDY, STAGGERS, GID, TURNSICK, GOGGLES, WORM UNDER THE HORN, WATERY HEAD, and PENDRO, are all popular names for hydatids, caused by an animal now known as the tanias globulus, which, by some unaccountable way, finds entrance into the brain of the sheep, and settles there, either in some of its ventricles, or more frequently in its substance. Their size varies from that of the smallest speck to that of a pigeon's egg; and the sheep attacked are generally under two years old. These animals are likewise occasionally found in all the natural cavities of the body. Stupidity, a disposition to sit on the rump, to turn to one side, &c., are the indications of this disease, which is not incurable, as has been supposed, but can be cured only by a manual operation-instruments are thrust through the skin and skull, or a wire through the nostrils, and the hydatid thus destroyed. The latter is called by the English shepherds wiring. It is always fatal, if not relieved by art.

STURGEON (Acipenser). A genus of cartilaginous fishes, allied somewhat to the shark and ray, but differing essentially in structure, as well as in the habits of the species. The mouth is situated beneath the snout, is small, retractile, and destitute of teeth; there are several fleshy

rivers.

beards also beneath the snout, and anterior to the mouth; the body is massive, elongated, and furnished with several longitudinal rows of bony plates implanted in the skin; the gill openings are very large. The sturgeons inhabit the ocean, Mediterranean, Red, Black, and Caspian seas, and the Canadian lakes, keeping in inaccessible depths during the winter season, and in the spring ascending the larger The common sturgeon of Europe (A. sturio) is found in most of the large rivers of that continent, and sometimes is excessively multiplied in the more northern countries. Its flesh is delicate and well flavored, somewhat resembling veal, and has been esteemed in all ages; but modern nations do not consider it so great a luxury as the ancients, especially the Romans. Its fishery is an object of importance, and caviar is sometimes made of the eggs of the female. The singlass sturgeon, or beluga of the Russians (A. huso), is the largest species. It is not so extensively diffused as the former, and is chiefly found in the Black and Caspian seas, ascending the tributary streams in immense multitudes. It frequently attains the length of twenty or twenty-five feet; and individuals have been taken weighing nearly three thousand pounds. It enters the rivers in the middle of winter, while they are still covered with ice, is very voracious, and pursues all the smaller fishes, but feeds likewise on vegetables. The fishery of this species is vastly important in the south of Russia; and upwards of a hundred thousand are taken yearly. The caviar of commerce is chiefly made from its eggs, which exist in such abundance as to constitute nearly one third of the total weight. This is a very common aliment in Turkey, Russia, Germany, Italy, and especially in Greece, and forms an important article of commerce, very profitable to Russia. The flesh is white, fat, resembling veal, very wholesome, nutritious, and agreeably tasted. The isinglass of commerce is prepared from the air bladder. The fat is also agreeable to the taste, and may be used as a substitute for butter or oil. A kind of leather is made from the skin, and that of the young ones, cleaned and dried, is used for window-glass in some parts of Russia and Tartary. There are a few other species of sturgeon in the rivers of Europe. We have several sturgeons in the U. States, but their useful properties appear to be not yet fully appreciated: it is probable that, at some future day, they may become important,

though not to the same extent as the European.-The common round-nosed sturgeon of the Delaware and Hudson is the largest, attaining the length of ten feet During the hot season, it is fond of leaping out of the water, forming a familiar and interesting spectacle. It is very troublesome to the shad fishermen, sometimes breaking their nets when enclosed. It is sometimes brought to the Philadelphia market; but the majority that are taken in the Delaware are left to rot along the shores. The short-nosed sturgeon (A. brevirostrum of Lesueur) is a small species, remarkable for the shortness of the head in proportion to its breadth. It grows to the length of about three feet, and inhabits the Delaware, but is rather rare. When taken, it is brought to the Philadelphia market, and commands a higher price than the large one; but it is eaten by the common people only.-The sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus) of Mitchell, distinguished by its long and somewhat acute snout, grows to the length of four feet and upwards. The skin is rough. It is found in the Delaware, but not so abundantly as in the Hudson. Probably this is the species which inhabits the Merrimack and the rivers of Maine. A. rubicundus (Les.) inhabits lakes Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Michigan. It grows to the length of four feet or more. The color is red, inclining to yellowish on the back, and to olivaceous on the sides. The Indians use it for food, and take it by means of a harpoon or dart, having a long line attached, in order to enable them to play the animal till exhausted. It is not sought after for the table, but, when taken by the fishermen in their seines, is occasionally salted down, as a substitute for more esteemed food. Travellers assert that it is good, palatable food. The same, or a variety, is found in the Ohio. A. maculosus (Les.) is a small species of a reddish olive color, with black spots, found in the Ohio.

STURLASON, Snorro, a native of Iceland, of an old noble family, was born in 1179. He lived for a long time at the courts of Norway and Sweden, was at last lagmann of Iceland, and was murdered in 1241, in his castle. He was a man of great talents, and rendered himself famous as a poet, lawgiver, zealous republican, and historian. He composed a general history of the north, from the ancient songs of the scalds, and other historical sources, with taste, and a faithful use of his sources. His history is rich in information respecting Sweden