the Wendish mark. Charlemagne set markgraves over it; and, as the counts of Steier were among the number, it hence received the name of Steiermark. It is hounded north by the archduchy of Austria, east by Hungary, south by Carniola and Carinthia, and west by Carinthia and Salzburg. Population, 836,128; square miles, 8480. Upper Stiria lies to the north, and is mountainous, consisting, in a great measure, of a continuation of a branch of the Alps. Lower Stiria comprises the southern part. A number of lateral branches of the Alps extend into Lower Stiria, but become gradually lower as they remove from the main chain, till they present nothing but small elevations. There are, however, but few extensive plains. The rivers are the Drave, Save, Muhr and Ens. The climate in the elevated parts is cold, but the air is pure and elastic; the soil, except on the high mountains, very fertile, producing wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, and in warmer situations, wheat. Great attention is paid to raising cattle, and poultry is abundant. Agriculture is in a backward state. Stiria abounds in mineral productions. The iron mines are the most important, and yield annually from 16,000 to 20,000 tons. Salt and coal are abundant. Gold, silver and copper hardly defray the expense of working: lead is more common. Cobalt, arsenic and molybdena are found. The manufactures are chiefly derived from the mines. The exports consist of metals, corn, flax, wine, clover-seed and cattle. The Stirians have the hospitality, frankness and simple habits of an agricultural people; but they are imperfectly educated, though parish schools have been established in the principal villages. The majority are Catholics, though the Protestants enjoy a full, and the Jews a limited, toleration. The chief town is Grätz. (q. v.) STIRLING, LORD. (See Alexander, William.)

STITH, William, president of William and Mary college, Virginia, was born in that province. He embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and, in 1740, withdrew from the laborious office which he had sustained in the college. He published a history of the first discovery and settlement of Virginia (Williamsburg, 8vo., 1747). It brings down the history only to 1624. An appendix contains a collection of charters relating to the period comprised in the volume. Besides the copious materials of Smith, the author derived assistance from the manuscripts of his uncle, sir John Randolph, and from

the records of the London company, put into his hands by colonel William Byrd, president of the council, and from the valuable library of this gentleman. Mr. Stith was a man of classical learning, and a faithful historian; but he was destitute of taste in style, and his details are exceedingly minute.

STOA. (See Stoics.)
STOAT. (See Ermine.)

STOBEUS, John, the name of a Greek writer, who, about the middle of the fifth century, was the author of a variety of miscellaneous works, most of which have perished; but his collection of excerpts from those of various philosophers and poets, has come down to posterity, and is important, from the fragments of lost authors which it contains. It consists of four books, of which the third and fourth form a separate work; and its extracts are important contributions to the history of philosophy. The best edition is that of Heeren (Göttingen, 1792—1801, 4 vols.).

STOCK EXCHANGE; originally the building, in London, where the stock brokers assemble to transact their business. It was erected in 1804, in consequence of the inconvenience to which they were subjected, and the general interruption of public business, occasioned by the stockjobbers, who intermingled with them when they transacted business in the bank rotunda. No person is allowed to act here but regular stock brokers, who are balloted for annually. The name is also applied in general to the place where the same business is transacted in other cities. The great stock exchanges of Europe are those of Amsterdam, London, Paris, and Frankfort on the Maine, which decide the price of stocks in all the rest of the world. Those of Petersburg, Berlin and Vienna are of much less importance. We have given an account of the stocks of different countries in the article Public Stocks: we shall here give a view of the manner of creating, purchasing, and transferring stock, as practised in London. New loans are paid at stated periods, by instalments of 10 or 15 per cent., and the terms on which they are made generally occasion an increase on different kinds of stock, to the amount of three per cent. and upwards (according to the emergency and state of the money market) more than the sum borrowed. Thus, for every hundred pounds capital, new stock is created to the amount of one hundred and three pounds. The difference is called the bonus, and the aggregate of the ad

sale of stock, of which they are not possess ed at the time of such bargain; and £100 on every broker or agent employed in procuring the said bargain. (See Stock Exchange.) STOCKBRIDGE; a post-town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, on both sides of the Housatonic. The river runs nearly west through this town, and then turns to the south. The intervals are very rich, and well cultivated. There are some factories on the river. It is a very pleasant town, about 130 miles west of Boston, on the mail route from Springfield to Albany. Population in 1830, 1580. Here was the residence of the Stockbridge tribe of Indians, till they removed to New Stockbridge, near the Oneidas, in New York, in 1775. This town suffered severely from the attacks of the Indians in 1754-5.

STOCKHOLM; the capital of Sweden, and the handsomest city in the north of Europe, situated at the junction of the lake Mälar with an inlet of the Baltic; lon. 18° 4′ E.; lat. 59° 21′ N.; population in 1826, 79,526. Stockholm is generally described as standing on seven islands, but is chiefly built on three, of which the small one in the centre constituted the original city, and is still the most busy part of the town, and the residence of the principal merchants. The Norrmalm and Sodermalm, the two principal suburbs, occupy several islands. The form of the city is an oblong, and its situation is extremely picturesque, as well from the mixture of land and water as from the unevenness of the ground on which it is built. The view from the higher grounds embraces edifices of all sorts, and vessels at anchor, or sailing across the channels, and is terminated by mountains, with a variety of romantic scenery. Constantinople is perhaps the only city of Europe which surpasses it in situation. There are thirteen stone bridges, and several of wood. The houses in the central part are of stone or brick, covered with plaster, of four or five stories, with their foundations on piles, but in the suburbs of only one or two stories, and partly of wood. Among the public buildings are the royal palace, the palace or house for the nobility of the diet, arsenal, bank, royal stables, warehouse for iron, hospitals, and twenty-four churches, eighteen of which are Lutheran. The royal palace is a large quadrangular edifice, the lower part of the walls of polished granite, the upper part of brick, covered with stucco, and is accounted second to no palace in Europe,

except that at Versailles. The literary associations are numerous and respectable; the principal are the academy of sciences, founded in 1739, having a museum, library, an observatory, and 160 members; the Swedish academy, founded in 1786, for improving the Swedish language, having eighteen members; the academy of fine arts, history and antiquities; the military academy, academy for painting and sculpture, and for music, and the medical college. The royal library contains about 50,000 volumes, and there are several important private collections. Stockholm is the mercantile emporium of the eastern part of Sweden. The harbor is of great depth, and so capacious that 1000 vessels may lie here in safety; and the largest come close up to the quays. The number of vessels that enter annually is, on an average, about 1000. The chief exports are iron and steel, also copper, pitch, tar, and timber; imports, colonial produce, wine, fruit, salt, and British manufactures. The manufactures are various, but not on a large scale. (See Sweden.)

STOCKINGS are made of only one thread, entwined so as to form a species of tissue, extremely elastic, and readily adapting itself to the part it is employed to cover. The tissue cannot be called cloth, for it has neither warp nor woof, but approaches it closely, and for the purposes to which it is applied, is much superior. It is well known that the ancient Romans had no particular covering for the legs (see Breeches); but during the middle ages, hose, or leggins, made of cloth, came into use; and, at a later period, the art of knitting stockings was invented. Very different accounts are given of the time and country of this important invention, some attributing it to the Scots, and others deriving it from Spain. Woven stockings are manufactured by the machine called stocking frame, which is exceedingly ingenious, but too complex to be described without plates. It was invented by William Lee, of Nottinghamshire (England), in 1589. He met with little encouragement in his attempts to set up an establishment in England, but was invited into France by Henry IV, and received with great favor. Henry's assassination soon after interrupted his prospects, and he died in Paris in great poverty. A knowledge of his machine was carried back to England by some of his workmen, who established themselves in Nottinghamshire, which has since continued to be the principal seat of the

manufacture. For near 200 years, few improvements were made on Lee's invention, and two men were usually employed on one frame; but it has recently been much improved, and adapted also to the manufacture of ribbed stockings. (See Beckmann's History of Inventions, iv, article Knitting Netts and Stockings.)

STOCKS; a wooden machine used to put the legs of offenders in, for the restraining of disorderly persons, or as a punishment for certain offences.

STOCKS, PUBLIC. (See Public Stocks.) STOCKTON, Richard, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born near Princeton, Oct. 1, 1730, of an ancient and respectable family. After graduating at the college of New Jersey, in 1748, he commenced the study of the law, and, being admitted to the bar in due time, soon attained great eminence as an advocate. In 1766, he crossed the Atlantic, and spent two years in making the tour of England, Scotland and Ireland. When in London, he was consulted on American affairs by various distinguished persons, including the marquis of Rockingham and the earl of Chatham, and at Edinburgh was complimented with a public dinner, by the authorities, and the freedom of the city. On his return to New Jersey, in 1768, he was appointed one of the royal judges of the province, and a member of the executive council. At the time when the revolutionary struggle commenced, his prospects from the royal favor were very bright; but he sided zealously with those of his countrymen who were determined on independence, and, June 21, 1776, was chosen, by the provincial congress of the colony, a delegate to the general congress then sitting at Philadelphia, where he discharged numerous, and often arduous, duties with unwearied energy and fidelity. At first, he is understood to have entertained some doubts as to the expediency of the declaration of independence at the time when it was made; but they were soon dissipated, and he spoke in its behalf. Nov. 30 of the same year, he was taken prisoner by a party of refugee royalists, who dragged him from his bed at night, and carried him to New York. In the way thither he was treated with great indignity, and in the city he was thrown into the common prison, where he was deprived of even the necessaries of life. When intelligence of his capture and sufferings reached congress, that body passed a resolution, directing general Washington to make immediate inquiry into the truth of the report, and, if he found reason

to believe it, to send a flag to general Howe, remonstrating against this departure from the humane procedure which had marked the conduct of the states to prisoners who had fallen into their hands, and to know of him whether he chose that this should be the future rule for treating prisoners. Mr. Stockton was at length released; but the shock given to his constitution by the hardships of his confinement was mortal. His health gradually declined, and, after languishing for several years, he died at Princeton, Feb. 28, 1781, in the fifty-first year of his age.

STODDARD, Solomon, pastor of the church of Northampton, was born at Boston, in 1643, and graduated at Harvard college in 1662, of which he was subsequently made a fellow. Intense application having impaired his health, he went to Barbadoes as chaplain to governor Serle, and preached to the dissenters in that island for nearly two years. On his return, he was invited to take charge of the church of Northampton, and was ordained Sept. 11, 1672. In this place he continued until his death, Feb. 11, 1729, in the cighty-sixth year of his age. Mr. Stoddard is considered one of the greatest divines of New England. His sermons were plain, but powerfully searching and argumentative. He was a man of learning, and particularly able in controversy. He waged a polemical contest with doctor Increase Mather respecting the Lord's supper, maintaining that the sacrament was a converting ordinance, and that all baptized persons, not scandalous in life, may lawfully approach the table, though they know themselves to be unconverted, or destitute of true religion; and most of the churches of Connecticut were induced by his arguments to coincide in his sentiinents. His diligence was so unremitting that he left a considerable number of sermons which he had never preached; and so fine was his hand-writing, that one hundred and fifty of his discourses are contained in a small duodecimo manuscript volume, which may easily be carried in the pocket. He published various sermons and treatises.

STOICHIOMETRY (from croixtior, element, original matter). The article Affinity, Chemical, treats of the general principles of chemical combinations and solutions. Neutrality is that state of solution of two substances in which each seems to have lost its peculiar characteristics. That branch of chemical science which treats of the proportions which the substances

must have, when they enter the state of neutrality, has been called by modern chemists stoichiometry.

STOICS; an ancient philosophical sect, founded by Zeno, which received its name from the roa (porch or portico), called Pacile (q. v.), in Athens, where Zeno taught his doctrines (about B. C. 300). Zeno (q. v.), a contemporary of Epicurus, after having studied the systems of the Socratic, Cynic and Academic schools, opposed to scepticism views resting on rigorous moral principles. Philosophy is, according to him, the way to wisdom; wisdom itself is the knowledge of human and divine things; and virtue is the application of wisdom to life. The chief heads of his doctrine-logic, physics and morals were connected into a systematic whole. In logic, which he defined the science of distinguishing truth and falsehood, he made experience the basis of all knowledge; ideas, or conceptions, which, in all respects, resemble their objects, he called true, and the power of judging according to principles, the mark of a sound reason. In his physics, he refers to nature itself for the highest standard of human duties, and derives the moral precepts from the laws of the universe. He assumes two uncreated and eternal, but material principles of all things-the passive matter, and the active intelligence, or God, which resides in matter, and animates it. The Deity is the original intelligence, and of an ethereal, fiery nature: he made the world, as an organic whole, out of matter and form, by the separation of the elements; and he also rules the world, but is limited in his operations by unchangeable fate or the necessary laws of nature. The universe, according to Zeno, is penetrated by the divine intelligence as by a soul, and is therefore living and rational, but destined to be destroyed by fire. He considers the heavenly bodies, and the powers of nature, of a divine character, and therefore admits the worship of several gods, and teaches that their connexion with men may be beneficial to the latter. The human soul he considers as produced by the union of the creative fire with air, and endowed with eight faculties—the five senses, the powers of generation, speech, and reason: the latter, as the active principle, governs the whole soul. The ethics of the Stoics treats the will of God (which also animates the soul of man), or nature, as the source of the moral law, which binds man to aim at divine perfection, since this only can lead to a virtuous life, harmonizing with God and nature, which is the only true happi2

VOL. XII.

ness. Their practical maxim is, Follow nature, live according to nature, or, which amounts to the same thing, Live in accordance with the laws of consistent reason. They considered virtue the highest good, and vice the only evil; every thing else is indifferent, or only relatively agreeable or disagreeable. They call human actions honest, when they have a reasonable foundation in the nature of the agent; perfectly proper, and therefore obligatory, when good in themselves; intermediate or lawful, in so far as, indifferent in themselves, they are expedient or allowable only in certain relations, but criminal, when they are inconsistent with the reason of the agent. Virtue they accordingly explain as the true harmony of man with himself, independent of reward or punishment, to be attained by correct moral judgment, and the mastery over the passions and affections: this virtue presupposes the highest inward tranquillity, and elevation (apathy) above the pleasures and pains of sense; it makes the wise man not destitute of feeling, but invulnerable, and gives him a dominion over his body which permits even suicide. Virtue, therefore, is represented chiefly under the character of self-denial. Zeno, and his celebrated disciple and successor, Cleanthus, both put themselves to death at an advanced age, the latter by starvation. Cleanthus, originally a pugilist, gave to the Stoic philosophy its distribution into dialectics, rhetoric, ethics, politics, physics and theology. He enlarged theology by his proof of the existence of God, and expressed his reverence of one God in his admirable Hymn, yet extant, Cleanthi Hymnus (ed. Sturz, 1785). Chrysippus of Soli (died 208 or 212 B. C.), the successor of Cleanthus, carried logic and dialectics to greater perfection, and, in physics, proved that the influence of fate, or the necessary relation of things, neither destroyed the operation of divine providence nor the free agency of man. In morals, he distinguished, like his predecessors, a natural and a positive law, and derived the latter from the mutual relations of men, as fellow-creatures of the same nature. His successors were Zeno, Antipater (both of Tarsus), Panatius of Rhodes, the pupil of Antipater, and Posidonius of Apamea, in Syria, the disciple of Panætius. Chrysippus, through his writings, also exerted a most important influence upon the Roman philosophers, among whom Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius (see Antoninus), were Stoics. They employed themselves prin