is the vicar of God upon earth, and has supreme power over all the church. The extent of the authority thus assumed by the pope, is different in different countries, and the whole doctrine of the papal supremacy is of course rejected by the Protestant, Greek and other churches. In 1534, Henry VIII assumed the title of the only supreme head, on earth, of the church of England. The oath of supremacy (that is, of renunciation of the papal supremacy), with the oath of abjuration (q. v.), was formerly required to be taken by all persons in office, and might be tendered, by two justices of the peace, to all persons suspected of disaffection in England. Some modifications of the law requiring this oath were made in 1793 (see Catholic Emancipation); but it was still, with the declaration against transubstantiation, the invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass, requisite as a qualification for sitting and voting in parliament, and for holding certain offices, until the passage of the Catholic relief bill. This bill repeals all former acts on the subject, and requires of a Roman Catholic peer, or member of the house of commons, &c., besides the oath of allegiance and abjuration, the following oath of supremacy: I do declare that it is not an article of my faith, and that I do reject, renounce and abjure the opinion, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the pope, or any other authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or by any person whatsoever; and I do declare that I do not believe that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign prince, prelate, person, state or potentate, hath, or ought to have, any temporal or civil jurisdiction, power, superiority or preëminence, directly or indirectly, within this realm.

SUPREME COURT OF THE U. STATES. (See Courts of the U. States, paragraph 3.) SURAT; a city of Hindoostan, in Guzerat, on the Taptee, twenty miles from its mouth; lon. 73° 3′ E.; lat. 21° 13′ N. The population was estimated, in 1796, at 800,000; the returns of 1816 gave a population of about 325,000. It is one of the most ancient and populous cities of India, and was formerly called the imperial port, and was the place whence Mohammedan pilgrims were conveyed to Mecca, often at the expense of government. The articles of its commerce were of the richest kind, viz. diamonds, pearls, gold, musk, ambergris, spices, indigo, saltpetre, silk, and fine cottons. But since the rise of Bombay, its commerce has

much declined, and now consists chiefly of raw cotton, a few of its own manufactures, and articles imported from Guzerat. The greater number of vessels that now enter the port are Arabs. All large vessels are obliged to remain at the mouth of the river called Swallow roads, where they are somewhat exposed to storms; but the anchorage is good. The value of the exports, in 1811, amounted to 3,964,523 rupees. Surat is situated in a fertile plain, protected on one side by the river, and on the three others by a brick rampart and ditch. It also possesses a strong citadel, surrounded by an esplanade. It is inhabited by a great variety of people; but the Parsees, or fire worshippers, are most affluent. In 1807, there were reckoned 1200 Parsees of the sacerdotal class, and 12,000 of the laity. The hospital for the preservation of maimed or diseased animals was formerly occupied by rats, mice, bugs, &c. The squares of the city are large, the streets spacious, but not paved, and the dust troublesome. The larger houses are flat roofed; the houses of the common people high roofed. The civil administration of this city has been vested in the hands of the English East India company since 1800.

SURD, in arithmetic and algebra, denotes any number or quantity that is incommensurable to unity; otherwise called an irrational number or quantity. (See Irrational Quantity.)

SURGERY (from the Greek xo, the hand, and toyov, work); that branch of the healing art which cures or prevents diseases by the application of the hand, either unaided or with the aid of instruments. War early made the healing of wounds more important than the curing of diseases, which were then less frequent, on account of the simple manner of living. Fifty years before the Trojan war, Melampus, Chiron, and his disciple Esculapius, accompanied the Argonautic expedition in the quality of surgeons; and in the Trojan war, two sons of Esculapius, Machaon and Podalirius, took care of the wounded Greeks. The Greek and Arabian physicians, at a later period, cultivated surgery and medicine together, as is proved by the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Paulus of Ægina, Albucasis, &c. However, in the time of Hippocrates, some surgical operations were kept separate from medicine. In the oath of Hippocrates, lithotomy was forbidden to physicians. The Arabians also felt an aversion for operations, and it was considered beneath the dignity of physicians

to operate themselves. The Romans left them generally to their slaves. In the middle ages, the practice of the healing art was almost exclusively confined to the monks and priests. But, in 1163, the council of Tours prohibited the clergy, who then shared with the Jews the practice of medicine in Christian Europe, from performing any bloody operation. Surgery was banished from the universities. under the pretext that the church detested all bloodshed. Medicine and surgery were now completely separated. This separation was the more easily effected, since the bath-keepers and barbers had undertaken the practice of surgery. At the time of the crusades (from 1100), many diseases were introduced into Europe from the East, particularly into Italy, France and Germany, which caused the frequent use of baths, and the establishment of bathing-houses. In France, the company of barbers was formed, in 1096, when the archbishop William, of Rouen, forbade the wearing of the beard. These bath-keepers and barbers remained for several centuries in possession of the practice of surgery. Meanwhile the mists of the middle ages disappeared. Enlightened by anatomy, surgery assumed a new form; and the works of Berengario de' Carpi, of Fallopius, of Eustachius, &c., were the true source of the knowledge with which Ambrose Paré enriched this science, which had been degraded by its union with the barber's trade. By the discoveries of Cæsar Magatus, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Wiseman, William Harvey, and Fabricius Hildanus, surgery made new progress. In 1731, the surgical academy was established in France, which soon became celebrated throughout Europe. Maréchal la Peyronie, Lamartinière, &c., were distinguished surgeons. The collection of memoirs and prize writings of the surgical academy contains the history of this flourishing period. There are preserved the labors of J. L. Petit, Garengeot, Lafaye, Lecat, Sabatier, and of several other practitioners. The emulation of all Europe was excited by such an example. At this period flourished, in England, Cheselden, Douglas, the two Monros, Sharp, Alanson, Pott, Smellie, the two Hunters; in Italy, Molinelli, Bertrandi, Moscati; in Holland, Albinus, Deventer, Camper; in Germany and the north of Europe, Heister, Zach, Platner, Stein, Röderer, Bilguer, Acrell, Callisen, Theden, and Richter. Down to the end of the last century, the French surgical academy contained many distinguished

members. Desault (q. v.) became the chief of the new school." Besides the surgical school of Paris, that of Strasburg, and particularly that of Montpellier (where Delpech distinguished himself), which has not always agreed with that of Paris, are celebrated. Now that surgery goes hand in hand with medicine, and is supported by exact anatomical knowledge, it advances with certainty towards perfection. All surgeons, however, are not capable of performing great operations. Some of the necessary qualities may be acquired by practice; but some of them must be received from nature. Sam. Cooper's Dictionary of Surgery, &c. (fourth edition), and Richerand's Origin of Modern Surgery (fifth edition, Paris), are much celebrated.

SURINAM; a territory and colony of South America, in Guiana, belonging to the Netherlands, lying west of French Guiana and east of English Guiana; bounded north by the Atlantic, east by the river Maroni, south by a country of the Indians, and west by the river Courantyn. It is about 150 miles from east to west, and upwards of sixty from north to south; square miles, about 11,000; population, 57,000. The principal rivers are the Surinam, from which the colony takes its name, the Courantyn, Copename, Seramica, and Maroni. The first only is navigable: the others, though long and broad, are so shallow, and so crowded with rocks and small islands, that they are of but little consequence to Europeans; nor are their banks inhabited, except by Indians. In all of them the water rises and falls for more than sixty miles from the mouth, occasioned by the stoppage of the freshes by the tide. In the Maroni is found a pebble called the Maroni diamond. The climate, which was formerly extremely fatal to Europeans, has, within the last twenty years, been much improved, by the increased population of the colony and the better clearing of the ground. The year is divided into two wet and two dry seasons. The highest heat during the hot season is stated at 91°; the common temperature from 75° to 84°. This equal degree of heat is owing to sea-breezes, which regularly set in at ten o'clock, and continue till five P. M., cooling the atmosphere with a constant stream of delightful air. The settlements are chiefly on the Surinam and its branches. The soil is very fertile, producing sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, maize, and indigo. The uncultivated parts are covered with immense forests, rocks, and mountains;

some of the latter enriched with a variety of mineral productions. The river Surinam, which gives name to the colony, rises from mountains in the interior, and, after a course of about 150 miles, flows into the Atlantic, lon. 55° 40′ W., lat. 6° 25 N. It is about four miles wide at its mouth, and from sixteen to eighteen feet deep, at low water mark, the tide rising and falling above twelve feet. It is navigable for small craft 120 miles. Paramaribo, twelve miles from its mouth, is the capital of the colony. It has a safe and convenient harbor, with an active commerce, and contains a population of 8000 whites, and several thousand free blacks, slaves, &c. The English have several times been in possession of Surinam, but finally restored it, in 1815, to the Dutch government.

SURREY. (See Howard, Henry.)

SURROGATE; one who is substituted or appointed in the room of another; as the bishop or chancellor's surrogate (from the Latin surrogare).

SURSOLID, in arithmetic and algebra; the fifth power, or fourth multiplication of any number or quantity, considered as a root. (See Root.)

SURTURBRAND, fossil wood, impregnat ed more or less with bitumen, is found in great abundance in Iceland. A bed of it extends nearly through the whole of the north-western part of the island. It is, in fact, a subterranean forest, impregnated with bituminous sap, and compressed by the weight of the superincumbent rocks. Branches and leaves are pressed together in a compact mass; but the fibres of each may be distinctly traced. The surturbrand is used by the Icelanders chiefly in their smithies, and in small quantities. It is sometimes so little mineralized as to be employed for timber.—Surtur is the name of the northern god of fire. (See Northern Mythology.)

SURVEYING, in a general sense, denotes the art of measuring the angular and linear distances of objects, so as to be able to delineate their several positions on paper, and to ascertain the superficial area, or space between them. It is a branch of applied mathematics, and supposes a good knowledge of arithmetic and geometry, It is of two kinds, land surveying and marine surveying, the former having generally in view the measure or contents of certain tracts of land, and the latter the position of beacons, towers, shoals, coasts, &c. Those extensive operations which have for their object the determination of the latitude and longitude of places, and

the length of terrestrial arcs in different latitudes, also fall under the general term surveying, though they are frequently called trigonometrical surveys, or geodetic operations, and the science itself geodesy. (See Trigonometry, Degrees, Heights, and Triangle.) Land surveying consists of three distinct operations: 1. the measuring of the several lines and angles; 2. protracting or laying down the same on paper, so as to form a correct map of an estate or country; 3. the computation of the superficial contents, as found by the preceding operation. Various instruments are used for the purpose of taking the dimensions, the most indispensable of which is the chain commonly called Gunter's chain, which is 22 yards long, and is divided into 100 links, each 7.92 inches: 10 of these square chains, or 100,000 square links, is one acre. This is used for taking the linear dimensions when the area of the land is required; but when only the position of objects is to be determined, a chain of 50 or 100 feet is more commonly used. A great deal of labor is frequently saved by having proper instruments for measuring angles. The most usual and the best adapted for this purpose are the circumferentor, theodolite and semicircle. The surveyor's cross, or cross-staff, is likewise very convenient for raising perpendiculars. For surveying in detail, the plain table is the best instrument. Of the German works on this subject, Meyer's Unterricht zur praktischen Geometrie (1815), and Lehmann's Anweisung zur richtigen Erkennung und genauen Abbildung der Erdoberfläche (1812), deserve to be recommended. (See To pography.)

SUS. PER COLL. On the trial of criminals in England, the usage at the assizes is for the judge to sign the calendar, or list of all the prisoners' names, with their separate judgments in the margin. For a capital felony, the sentence "Hanged by the neck" is written opposite the prisoner's name. Formerly, in the days of Latin and abbreviation, the phrase used was sus. per coll., for suspendatur per collum.

The

SUSQUEHANNA, the largest river of Pennsylvania, is formed by two branches which unite at Northumberland. east branch rises in Otsego lake, in New York: the western branch rises in Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania. After their junction, the river flows south-east into the head of Chesapeake bay, and is one and one fourth mile wide at its mouth. It is navigable only five miles.

SUSSEX, Augustus Frederic, duke of,

numerous widows forming subsequent attachments, availed themselves of their irresponsible power; and, with the aid of the priests, it was promulgated, as if by sacred authority, that the wives of the Hindoos of every caste, who desire future beatitude, should immolate themselves on the demise of their husbands. Since 1756, when the British power in India became firmly established, upwards of 70,000 widows have been cruelly sacrificed! A Brahmin possesses the privilege of marrying as many wives as he pleases. Ununtu, a Brahmin who died at Bagnapore, had more than one hundred wives: twenty-two were burned at his death. The fire was kept burning three days. He had married four sisters, two of whom were burned with his corpse. A short time before lord Bentinck's order, a rajah in the hill country, who died, had twenty-eight wives burned with his body." So far the East India Magazine. Perhaps, however, this self-immolation is in part owing to the surprisingly little value which Hindoos put on human life (hence so many suicides, infanticides, immolations and self-immolations), and to the relation of the Hindoo wife to her husband. None of the sacred books of the Hindoos command the suttee, though they speak of it as highly meritorious: it is believed to render the husband and his ancestors happy, and to purify him from all offences, even if he had killed a Brahmin. (See the Veda, &c., quoted before the privy council, June 23, 1832, to support the above-mentioned petition.) The rule is, that the act of the widow must be voluntary; but we can easily imagine that the fanaticism or cupidity of relations often compels the Hindoo widow to immolate herself, just as they forced women, in the middle ages, to take the veil, which also is required, by the rules of the church, to be voluntary. The ceremonies of a suttee are various, and last from a quarter of an hour to two hours. Sometimes the widow is placed in a cavity prepared under the corpse of the husband; sometimes she is laid by the body, embracing it. If the husband was not a Brahmin, it is not required that the corpse should be burned with the widow: any thing which belonged to the deceased-his garments, slippers, walking-staff may be substituted for the corpse. There were, according to official report, above forty suttees in the province of Ghazepoor in 1824; and several had taken place not reported to the magistrate.

SUWAROFF-RIMNITZKOY, Peter Alexis Wasiliowitsch, count of, prince Italinski,

field-marshal and generalissimo of the Russian armies, one of the most distinguished generals of the eighteenth century, was born at Suskoy, a village of the Ukraine, in 1730. His father, an officer, placed him in the military academy at Petersburg; and, in his seventeenth year, Suwaroff entered the service as a common soldier, and gave proofs of his courage in the war against Sweden. In 1754, he became lieutenant, and, after distinguishing himself in the seven years' war (q. v.), received the command of a regiment, in 1763. In 1768, he obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and served several campaigns in Poland, receiving, in reward for his courage and conduct, the crosses of three Russian orders of knighthood. In 1773, he was appointed to the command of a division of the troops under count Romanzoff, and completely defeated a portion of the Turkish army at Turtukey, killing several of the enemy with his own hand. Crossing the Danube, he afterwards, in conjunction with the force under Kamenskoy, routed the army of the reis effendi with great slaughter, and the capture of all his artillery. In 1783, he reduced the Budziac Tartars under the Russian yoke. In 1787, being chief in command, he was intrusted with the defence of Kinburn, then attacked by the Turkish forces both by sea and land; and, after an obstinate siege, succeeded in repulsing his assailants with considerable loss. At Oczakow and Fockzami (at the former of which places he received a severe wound) his daring valor was equally displayed; and, in the September of 1789, the Austrian troops, under the prince of Saxe-Coburg, being surrounded, on the banks of the Rimnik, by 100,000 Turks, owed their preservation to his timely arrival with 10,000 Russians, who not only rescued them from a destruction that appeared inevitable, but occasioned the utter overthrow of the enemy.

To this victory he was indebted for the first of his above-named titles, and the dignity of a count of both empires. The next, and perhaps the most sanguinary of his actions, was the storming of Ismail (q. v.), in 1790. This strongly fortified town had resisted all attempts to reduce it for a period of seven months, when Suwaroff received peremptory orders from prince Potemkin (q. v.) to take it without delay, and pledged himself to execute the task assigned him in three days. Of the sacking of the place on the third, and the indiscriminate massacre of 40,000 of its inhabitants, of every age and sex, the ac