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of Göttingen. In 1776, he travelled through Switzerland and Italy, and lived during the winter in Leipsic. In 1777, he returned to his parents, and remained until 1778 in Copenhagen. He now became a tutor, and went, in 1779, with his pupil, to Göttingen, and again to Italy. In 1782, he made a third journey to Italy. On his return, having heard in Paris of the change of ministry in Copenhagen, he resolved to go back to Rome, and reside there the rest of his life. In 1787, he became a Catholic, in order to be able to marry the daughter of the painter Pietruccioli. Zoëga undoubtedly received his first impulse to a profound investigation of antiquity from Winckelmann. (q. v.) He lived entirely with the ancients; and no modern characters or events exerted such an influence over him. In early youth, he had an inclination to melancholy, and his temper was irritable; but he overcame these propensities, and the serene tranquillity of the Greek character took possession of his soul. He was kind, and had a noble heart. He observed strictly the external forms of religion. When he arrived in Rome, professor Adler presented him to cardinal Stefano Borgia, whose favor and patronage he soon obtained. This cardinal had a great fondness for Egyptian antiquities, of which he possessed a rich collection. Zoëga, who was acquainted with the Coptic language, soon began to explain these ancient monuments. In 1787, he published an account of a complete collection of Egyptian coins, with full illustrations. The general approbation bestowed on this work, which furnished important contributions to history and chronology, excited the attention of pope Pius VI, and he employed Zoëga in the explanation of the obelisks. In 1797, he published, at the expense of the pope, his great work on the obelisks-De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum (Rome, 1797)-which procured him great reputation. The Museo Borgiano Veliterno was rich in Coptic manuscripts. Zoëga undertook the difficult task of explaining them, and, in 1810, the fruits of this immense labor were given to the public. Zoëga wrote, in the German language,an Archæological Guide through Rome; and himself accompanied the most distinguished travellers through the city. A treasure of rare knowledge is contained in his Li Bassirilievi antichi di Roma, incisi da Tom. Piroli colle Illustrazioni di Giorgio Zoega, in two folio volumes (Rome, 1808). He often regretted, at a later period, that he had not devoted to

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Grecian antiquities the time which he had given to the Egyptian. The Danish government appointed him its consulgeneral for the States of the Church; and, a few days after his death, a diploma of the Danebrog order, intended for him, arrived in Rome. He was professor of the university of Kiel, and member of the academies of Copenhagen, Göttingen, Berlin, Siena, Florence, Rome, &c. He died February 10, 1809. He had eleven children; but three only survived him, who are supported by the Danish government. Mr. Niebuhr, the historian, offered a prize, some years before his death, for the best essay on Zoëga and his productions.

ZOILUS; the name of a Thracian rhetorician, whose hypercriticisms on the works of Homer have given him a very unenviable kind of distinction with posterity. He was a native of the town of Amphipolis, said to have been born about 270 years before the Christian era, and studied under Polycrates, himself an abusive and illiberal critic. The appellation by which Zoilus delighted to be known, was Homero-mastyx, although his censures were by no means confined to the writings of the great father of epic poetry, but extended indiscriminately and impartially to those of Demosthenes, Aristotle, Plato, and all others whose works came under his lash. His very name has now become a proverb, as applied to all illiberal and captious pretenders to criticism. The period of his death, which was a violent one, is unknown: indeed, the precise era in which he lived is not absolutely determined, Vitruvius making him contemporary with Ptolemy Philadelphus, while Elian refers him to the ninety-fifth Olympiad.

ZOISITE. (See Epidote.)

ZOLLIKOFER, George Joachim, one of the most eminent preachers of the last century, was born at St. Gall, in Switzerland, August 5, 1730. He studied at the gymnasia of Frankfort on the Maine, and of Bremen, and at the university of Utrecht, and, in 1754, became a clergyman at Morat, in Switzerland. In 1758, he accepted an invitation from a congregation at Leipsic, and remained in this situation until his death, January 20, 1788. During these thirty years, he did great good, not only in his congregation, but also among the students of the university in Leipsic. Two hundred and fifty of his sermons have appeared in print. From 1769 to 1788, he published four collections, in six volumes, which went through

several editions. After his death, his remaining sermons were published in nine volumes. The whole of his sermons have been published in fifteen volumes (Leipsic, 1789-1804). Two volumes have of late been translated into English, by reverend W. Tooke; also a small volume of his Devotional Exercises. Zollikofer also published a Hymn Book (eighth edition, Leipsic, 1786), besides translations of some English and French works. Garve (q. v.) wrote on the character of Zollikofer (Leipsic, 1788).

ZONARAS, John; a monk of St. Basil, by birth a Greek, who lived during the latter part of the eleventh and the commencement of the following century. Before he renounced the world for the cloister, he had filled some distinguished offices about the imperial court, but becoming, at length, disgusted with its intrigues, gave himself up to a religious life, employing his leisure hours in the compilation of a History of the World, from the Earliest Periods to the Year 1118. In this work (of which an edition appeared at Paris, in two folio volumes, 1687), he follows, principally, the narrative of Dion Cassius; and all the earlier part of the book is a tissue of fable; but, as he approaches his own times, he becomes more entitled to attention, as all his mistakes arise evidently more from ignorance than design. There is also extant a commentary on the apostolic canons by him. His death took place about the year 1120. ZONE. The whole surface of the earth is divided into five zones-the torrid, northern and southern temperate, and northern and southern frigid zones. The torrid zone extends 234° north and south of the equator; and, twice a year, the sun shines vertically on its inhabitants. This zone is bounded, on both sides of the equator, by the two tropics; that is, the circles in which the sun reaches its greatest distance from the equator. As the rays of the sun here are nearly vertical, a perpetual summer reigns, and day and night, under the equator, are always equal; and even at the tropics, the difference is scarcely an hour. Owing to the nature and situation, however, of the countries in this zone, the heat is not every where the same. The warmest portions are the sandy deserts of Africa: far more temperate are the happy islands of the South seas, and still milder the climate of Peru. This last country contains mountains from whose summits the vertical sun-beams never melt the perpetual snow. The two temperate zones

extend from the tropics to the polar cir cles. They contain the most populous countries, and the climate is various. As the distance from the tropics increases, the heat diminishes, the difference of the seasons becomes greater, the days and nights become more unequal, until we arrive at a point where, once a year, the sun does not appear above the horizon during the twenty-four hours, and, once a year, does not set for the same time. The circles passing through these points, parallel to the equator and the tropics, form the limits of the temperate zones, and are called the arctic and antarctic circles. The distance from the tropics to the polar circles, or the breadth of the temperate zones, both in the northern and southern hemispheres, is 43°. All beyond the polar circles, to the poles, is called the frigid zones. No land is known to exist in the southern frigid zone. The northern is habitable, though it produces neither grain nor trees, but only mosses, lichens, and a few bushes. The distance from the polar circles to the poles is 234°; but no one has yet penetrated to the poles themselves. Cook sailed as far as the seventy-first degree of latitude, towards the south pole, which is still more inhospitable than the north, as its winters occur at the time of the earth's greatest distance from the sun. To the north, the eightieth degree has been reached. (See North Polar Expeditions.) The characteristic of the frigid zones is, that day and night are more and more unequal the nearer you approach the poles; and for days, and even weeks, the sun is above or below the horizon. (See Seasons.)

ZOOGENE (from (wor, animal, and yes, to produce). On the surface of the thermal waters of Baden, in Germany, and on the waters of Ischia, an island of the kingdom of Naples, a singular substance is collected, which has been called zoogene. It resembles human flesh with the skin upon it, and, on being subjected to distillation, affords the same products as animal matter. M. Gimbernat (Journal de Pharmacie, April, 1821) has also seen rocks covered with this substance, in the valleys of Sinigaglia and Negropont. Salverte (Des' Sciences Occultes, 1829, 2 vols., 8vo.) considers this fact as explaining the stories of showers of pieces of meat, which figure in the number of prodigies of antiquity.-The name of zoogene is also given to a substance obtained from bones, by a chemical process which was discovered by M. Gimbernat. Much of it was sent, in 1827, to Greece, and

much of it also was used by the French army, on the expedition to Algiers.

ZOOLITHES (from (wor, animal, and 100s, stone): fossil animal remains, great numbers of which have been found in digging into the surface of the earth. They differ from petrifactions, which are organized bodies, penetrated with stony matter, or completely converted into stony masses, by the gradual removal of the organic matter, the place of which has been supplied by stony deposits. Zoolithes have been divided into six classes tetrapodolithes, or fossil quadrupeds; ornitholithes, or fossil skeletons of birds; amphibiolithes, or fossil remains of the amphibia, ichthyolithes, or fossil fish; Entomolithes, or fossil insects; and helmintholithes, or fossil worms. (See Geology, and Organic Remains.)

ZOOLOGY (from (wov, animal, and Xoyos, doctrine); that part of natural history which treats of animals. It is not confined to a description of the external forms of animals, but embraces all the phenomena of life and animal motion; the internal organization of each individual part; the processes of digestion, assimilation, nutrition, secretion and reproduction; the wonderful instincts, the varied dispositions, and the different degrees of intellect, manifested in the auimal creation, from the half-vegetable zoophyte up to man. Although it cannot be doubted that the attention of men was early attracted to an observation of the habits and natures of the lower order of animals, Aristotle seems to have been the first who furnished the world with any methodical information on this subject. His work Περι Ζωων Ιστορίαι contains a great number of facts and observations. He compares the organization of the lower animals, in its different parts, with that of man, and treats of their mode of generation, habits, organs, &c., with great clearness and sagacity; and his principal divisions of the animal kingdom are so well founded that almost all of them are still substantially admitted. Among the Romans, zoology does not appear to have been at all cultivated, until the time of Pliny, who is the only Roman zoologist worthy of notice. His work (Historia Naturalis) contains multitudes of original traits, though it is only a compilation, and describes the habits and dispositions of animals with great felicity. He adopted, without examination, many fabulous stories, and too often neglected important details. Elian (q. v.) was far inferior to the two above-mentioned writers, and his

Natural History of Animals may be considered as the source of all the falsehood and error which so long disgraced this branch of natural history. Apuleius, and Athenæus the grammarian, are the only names that deserve mention, from the time of Ælian and Pliny to the beginning of the sixteenth century; and they added nothing to the stock of zoological science. At the latter period, flourished, among others, Belon, a French physician, who made the closest approach of any author of that time to any thing like systematic classification, in his De Aquatilibus, and particularly in his De la Nature des Oiseaux (Paris, 1555, folio); Salviani, author of a treatise, Aquatilium Animalium Historia (Rome, 1554, folio), which is superbly illustrated; Conrad Gesner, whose Historia Animalium (Zürich, 1550-1587, 4 vols., folio), arranged in alphabetical order, forms the foundation of modern zoology; and Aldovrandus, the most laborious of compilers, who devoted sixty years to his work on natural history, in fourteen volumes, folio, of which the greater part was published after his death. These earlier writers were followed, in the next century, by Redi and Swammerdam (q. v.), to whom entomology is so much indebted, and by Ray (q. v.), the first naturalist, from the time of Aristotle, who produced any thing like a scientific arrangement. The works of Ray, under his own name, are Synopsis Quadrupedum et Serpentum (1683, 8vo.); Synopsis Avium et Piscium (1713); and Historia Insectorum; and he is also considered to have had a large share in the compositions of his pupil Willoughby. But it was reserved for Linnaeus to raise natural history to the rank of a science. Gifted with extraordinary powers of invention and discrimination, a most retentive memory, an unrelaxing industry, and the most ardent zeal in the cause of science, this great man observed, with the acutest sagacity, the subtilest affinities of organized nature. The general character of his works is order, precision, clearness, exactness of description, and an accurate knowledge of relations in detail. Buffon adorned natural history with the charms of eloquence, and was the first who extended its popularity beyond mere scholars and men of science. He was occasionally carried, by the force of his imagination, into unfounded hypotheses; yet he had a truly philosophical spirit, could observe facts, and compare results, and possessed extensive information. The four great naturalists whom we have had

occasion to mention, have exhibited nature under different aspects. Aristotle has shown us the profound combination of its laws; Pliny its inexhaustible riches; Linnæus its wonderful details; and Buffon its majesty and power. Since the time of Buffon, all the departments of zoology have been cultivated with a zeal, a minute accuracy, and an extensiveness of research, before unequalled. Our limits will not allow us to mention all those who have distinguished themselves in the cultivation of the whole field of the science, much less those who, confining themselves to particular branches of it, have yet rendered most important services by the exactness of their researches and the novelty of their views. Among the Germans, Illiger and Blumenbach hold the first rank as zoologists; but it is to France that we are chiefly indebted for the strong impulse which has been given, in our times, to the progress of natural science, and of zoology in particular. The name alone of Cuvier, whose recent death (1832) science deplores, sufficiently indicates the brilliant triumphs of natural history in that country. We have already treated, at some length, of some parts of this extensive subject, under the general heads Animals, Anatomy, and Physiology, and of the nomenclature of particular classes of animals under those of Insects, and Entomology, Conchology, Fishes, and Ichthyology, Ornithology, Reptiles, Serpents, &c.; and we shall now proceed to give some notice of the principal methods pursued by eminent zoologists, with a particular view of mastology, or the classification of the mammiferous animals. The immense number of facts embraced by natural history could never be retained in the memory without an arrangement of divisions and subdivisions founded upon some distinguishing characteristics. Aristotle's system of arrangement was simple, resting on divisions derived mainly from the external structure, food, habits and locality. But though neither human nor comparative anatomy was then sufficiently cultivated to enable him to make the internal structure of animals the basis of his divisions, yet Aristotle was not insensible to the advantages of a more scientific distribution, and, with his usual sagacity, recommends to succeeding writers to turn their attention in that direction. Ray followed the advice of the great master, and remarked the great distinction, that some animals possessed lungs and a sanguineous system, while others were destitute of

both. Linnæus, proceeding on the general arrangement of Ray, but with many extensions and improvements, divided the animal kingdom into six classes, founded mainly on the differences in the respiratory and sanguineous systems.

CLASS I.-Mammalia. All suckle their young; the heart has two auricles and two ventricles; blood red and warm; viviparous.

CLASS II. Aves (Birds). Characters of sanguineous system as in first class; viviparous.

CLASS III. Amphibia. Heart one auricle and one ventricle; blood red and cold; respiration voluntary.

CLASS IV. Pisces (Fishes). Heart and blood as in amphibia; respiration by gills.

CLASS V. Insecta. Heart one ventri

cle and no auricle; sanies cold, colorless; antennæ, or feelers.

CLASS VI. Vermes (Worms). Characters as in V, except no antennæ, but tentacula.

He then subdivides the Mammalia into

seven orders, the distinctions of which

are taken from the difference in the num

ber, form and situation of the teeth, without, however, neglecting the feet.

ORDER 1. Primates. Four incisors in each jaw, and one canine.-GENERA: homo, simia, lemur, vespertilio.

ORDER 2. Bruta. No incisorsGENERA: rhinoceros, elephas, trichechus, bradypus, myrmecophaga, manis, dasypus.

ORDER 3. Fera. Six conical incisors in each jaw, for the most part.GENERA: phoca, canis, felis, viverra, mustela, ursus, didelphis, talpa, sorer, eri

naceus.

ORDER 4. Glires. Two incisors in each jaw; no canines.-GENERA: hystrix, lepus, castor, mus, sciurus, myoras, cavia, arctomys, dipus, hyrax.

ORDER 5. Pecora. No fore-teeth in the upper jaw; six or eight in the under. -GENERA: camelus, moschus, girafe, cervus, antilope, capra, ovis, bos.

ORDER 6. Bellua. Obtuse fore-teeth in each jaw.-GENERA: equus, hippopot 2mus, sus, tapir.

ORDER 7. Cete. No uniform characula.-GENERA: monodon, balana, physter of teeth; aquatic pectoral fins; spiracter, delphinus.

The other classes are subdivided in a similar manner. We shall enumerate

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The Amphibia are divided into two orders. ORDER 1. Reptilia. Furnished with feet, and breathing through the mouth. (See Reptiles.)

ORDER 2. Serpentes. Destitute of feet, and breathing through the mouth. (See Serpents.)

The fourth class, Pisces, is subdivided into six orders, the characters of which are taken from the belly-fins.

ORDER 1. Apodes. No ventral fins; embraces the eel kind, torpedo, &c. ORDER 2. Jugulares. Ventral fins placed before the pectoral; cod, blenny, &c. ORDER 3. Thoracici. Ventral fins under the pectoral; sucking-fish, goby, plaice, doree, &c.

ORDER 4. Abdominales. Ventral fins placed behind the pectoral; skate, salmon, pike, &c.

ORDER 5. Branchiostegi. Gills destitute of long rays; sun-fish, pipe-fish, &c. ORDER 6. Chondropterygii. Cartilaginous gills; lamprey, ray, shark, &c.

The fifth class, that of Insects, is divided into seven orders, the characters of which are mostly taken from the differences observed in the number and texture of the wings.

ORDER 1. Coleoptera.
2. Hemiptera.

3. Lepidoptera.

4. Neuroptera.

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The arrangement of Linnæus, with all its advantages, had its defects. By confining himself too much to one kind of character, he often throws together subjects widely remote in their general appearance and economy; but he has carried the art of distribution, and the management of characters, to such a degree of clearness and brevity, that any person familiarized to his language may easily find the name and place of any being he wishes to observe. It still remained a desideratum to arrange the facts, of which the science treats, in a series of propositions, so graduated and successively subordinate, that the whole might represent the actual relations of living beings. For animals according to their different propthis purpose, it was necessary to group erties or organizations, so that those contained in such a group should bear a stronger natural resemblance to each other than to any individual of a different group. This arrangement is termed the natural method, for the formation of which zoology offers great facilities. In the arrangement of Cuvier, the completest and most scientific yet presented to the world, the great division of the animal world rests on the nervous and sensorial, and not on the circulatory and respiratory, systems. From the study of the physiology of the natural classes of vertebrated animals, Cuvier discovered the respective quantity of respiration, the reason of the quantity or degree of motion, and, consequently, the peculiar nature of that motion. This last gives rise to the peculiar form of their skeletons and muscles; and with it the energy of their sensations, and the force of their digestion, are in a necessary relation. Thus zoological arrangement, which had hitherto rested on observation alone, assumed a truly scientific form. Calling in the aid of comparative anatomy, it involves propositions applicable to new cases, and thus becomes a means of discovery as well as a register of facts; and, by correct reasoning, founded on copious induction, it partakes of the demonstration of mathematics, and the certainty of experimental knowledge. Having examined the modifications which take place

The sixth class, Vermes, is subdivided in the organs of circulation, respiration into five orders.

ORDER 1. Intestina.

2. Mollusca.

3. Testacea.

4. Zoophyta. 5. Infusoria.

and sensation in the invertebrated animals (a title first given by Lamarck, instead of the erroneous one of white-blooded animals, by which they were previously distinguished), Cuvier has formed a new division, in which these animals are arranged according to their actual rela

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