found, in those times, so prone to adventurous enterprises, who were ready to follow him in the expectation of a rich booty. Robert, who was no ways inferior in courage to his brothers, soon distinguished himself in many battles; and the soldiers, moved by his exploits, unanimously proclaimed him, after the death of his brother Humphrey, count of Apulia a dignity which he accepted without hesitation, although to the prejudice of the rights of his brother's children. He then conquered Calabria, in the possession of which he was confirmed by pope Nicholas II, although that pontiff had not long before excommunicated him for his outrages. Robert, grateful for this favor, bound himself to pay to the holy see an annual sum; and from this the feudal claims of the papal see on Naples, which exist to this day, are derived. In Apulia itself, Guiscard ruled with absolute power. This country had, till his reign, preserved a number of privileges, and some forms of a constitution; but scarcely was he at the head of the state, when he destroyed them; and hence naturally arose discontents and conspiracies among the nobility, who, at that time, were alone in possession of any rights. Robert punished many of these with death, and reduced the others to submission. He now began to think of conquering Sicily, the investiture of which the pope had already promised him. He sent, therefore, his youngest brother, Roger, whose valor had already been displayed in many battles, at the head of 300 resolute warriors, to take possession of this island. Roger made himself master of the city of Messina, with this small band, in 1060. In the following year, the two brothers united conquered the Saracens on the plains of Enna; but the misunderstanding which broke out between the victors, prevented them from deriving all the advantages which might have resulted from this victory. Guiscard had promised Roger the half of Calabria, in case his expedition to Sicily should prove successful; but he was now unwilling to allow him more than two cities. The complaints of Roger irritated his brother, who determined to imprison him. But the soldiers of the former made themselves masters of the person of Robert himself and Roger was magnanimous enough not to take advantage of this success. Guiscard, touched with this generosity, was reconciled to his brother, and fulfilled his promise. Roger now

conquered nearly the whole of the island, and became the first count of Sicily. Guiscard, in the mean time, besieged all those cities in Lower Italy which, as yet, were in the hands of the Saracens. Some of these detained him a long time; as, for instance, Salerno and Bari, before the latter of which places Guiscard was encamped for four years, and endured all the violence of the weather and the dangers of the war, in a miserable hut, composed of branches of trees and covered with straw, which he had caused to be built near the walls of the city. He at length succeeded in conquering all the provinces which now form the kingdom of Naples, and he would have extended his victorious course still farther, had he not been excommunicated by Gregory VII, on account of his attack on Benevento, and obliged to confine his ambition within these limits. The betrothment of his daughter Helen to Constantine Ducas, the son and heir of Michael VII, gave him afterwards an opportunity of interfering in the affairs of the Greek empire. He fitted out a considerable fleet, and sent his son Boëmond to the conquest of Corfu, while he himself went to attack Durazzo. A tempest and a contagious disease had nearly frustrated this expedition. Alexis Comnenus, then emperor of Constantinople, approached with superior forces. armies joined battle under the walls of Durazzo, where the victory at first inclined to the side of the Greeks; but the courage of Guiscard gave the battle a different turn. He rallied the already flying bands of his soldiers, led them anew to the combat, and gained a complete victory over forces six times as numerous as his own. Durazzo was compelled to surrender. Robert penetrated into Epirus, approached Thessa lonica, and filled the capital with terror. In the midst of this victorious career, he was recalled by the information that Henry IV (q. v.), emperor of Germany, had entered Italy. He gave the command to Boëmond, and hastened home to assist Gregory VII, who was besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, against the Germans. Henry IV was compelled to retreat Gregory was released, and conducted to Salerno as a place of safety. Guiscard now hastened again to Epirus, where he repeatedly defeated the Greeks, and, by means of his fleet, made himself master of many of the islands of the Archipel ago. He was upon the point of advancing against Constantinople, when his

The

death took place in the island of Cephalonia, July 17, 1085, in the 70th year of his age. His army retreated, and the Greek empire was saved. Guiscard's corpse was put on board a galley, which running aground at Venusa, the remains of the victorious prince were deposited in the church of the Holy Trinity. His sons Boëmond and Roger, after much dispute, divided the conquests of their father, the former receiving Tarentum, and the latter Apulia. Robert Guiscard left behind him the glory of having protected learning, and of being highly estimable in all his private relations. His appearance was martial, his frame powerful, and his courage unbounded. The school of Salerno claims him as its founder.

GUISCHARD, Charles Gottlieb, an able writer on military tactics, was a native of Magdeburg. After studying at the universities of Halle, Marburg and Leyden, he entered into the service of Holland, and, while thus employed, found leisure to prepare materials for his Mémoires militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains, which appeared in 1757 (in 2 vols., 4to.), and met with great approbation. The same year, he entered as a volunteer into the allied army, and acquired the esteem of prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who recommended him to the king of Prussia. He was a favorite of Frederic the Great. A dispute having once arisen between them respecting the name of the commander of Cæsar's tenth legion, in which Guischard proved to be right, Frederic gave him the name of this commander (Quintus Icilius), by which he was afterwards frequently called. Besides the work already mentioned, he was the author of Mémoires Critiques et Historiques sur plusieurs Points d'Antiquité militaire (4 vols., 8vo.), upon which work Gibbon bestows very high encomiums. Guischard died in 1775.

GUISE; the name of a celebrated noble family in France, a branch of the house of Lorraine. Claude de Guise, fifth son of René, duke of Lorraine, born in 1496, established himself in France, and married Antoinette de Bourbon in 1513. His valor, his enterprising spirit, and his other noble qualities, obtained for him great consideration, and enabled him to become the founder of one of the first houses in France. In 1527, for the sake of doing him honor, his county of Guise was changed to a duchy, and made a peerage. At his death, in 1550, he left six sons and five daughters, of whom the eldest married James V, king of Scot

land. The splendor of the house was principally supported by the eldest son, Guise (Francis, duke of Lorraine), born in 1519, and called Le Balafré (the scarred), from a wound which he received in 1545, at the siege of Boulogne, and which left a permanent scar on his face. He showed distinguished courage, in 1553, at Metz, which he defended with success against Charles V, although the emperor had sworn that he would rather perish than retreat without having effected his object. In the battle of Renti, Aug. 13, 1554, he displayed remarkable intrepidity. He also fought with success in Flanders and in Italy, and was named lieutenantgeneral of all the royal troops. The star of France began again to shine as soon as he was placed at the head of the army. In eight days, Calais was taken, with the territory belonging to it, in the middle of winter. Thus the English lost the city without recovery, after having held it 210 years. He afterwards conquered Thionville from the Spaniards, and proved that the good or ill fortune of whole states often depends on a single man. Under Henry II, whose sister he had married, and still more under Francis II, he was the virtual ruler of France. The conspiracy of Amboise, which the Protestants had entered into for his destruction, produced an entirely opposite effect. The parliament gave him the title of savior of his country. After the death of Francis II, his power began to decline. Then grew up the factions of Condé and Guise. On the side of the latter stood the constable of Montmorency and marshal de St. André ; on the side of the former were the Protestants and Coligny. The duke of Guise, a zealous Catholic, and an enemy to the Protestants, determined to pursue them sword in hand. After having passed the borders of Champagne, at Bassi, March 1, 1562, he found the Calvinists singing the psalms of Marot in a barn. His party insulted them; they came to blows, and nearly 60 of these unhappy people were killed, and 200 wounded. This unexpected event lighted the flame of civil war throughout the kingdom. The duke of Guise took Rouen and Bourges, and won the battle of Dreux, Dec. 19, 1562. On the evening after this victory, he remained, with entire confidence, in the same tent with his prisoner, the prince of Condé, shared his bed with him, and slept quietly by the side of his rival, whom he regarded as a relation and a friend. At that time, the duke of Guise was at the height of his fortune.

He

was preparing for the siege of Orleans, the central point of the Protestant party, when he was killed by a pistol shot fired by Poltrot de Mercy, a Huguenot nobleman, Feb. 24, 1563.

GUISE, Henry, duke of Lorraine, eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1550. He displayed his courage, for the first time, at the battle of Jarnac, in 1569. His prepossessing appearance made him a general favorite. He put himself at the head of an army, under the pretence of defending the Catholic faith, and advised the cruel massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). From motives of personal revenge, he took upon himself the assassination of Coligny, whom he called the murderer of his father. In 1576 was formed the League, first projected by his uncle, the cardinal of Lorraine. For this purpose, it was proposed to the most zealous citizens of Paris to join in a league, which had for its avowed object the defence of religion, of the king, and of the freedom of the state, but in reality tended to the oppression both of the king and the nation. The duke of Guise, who wished to raise himself upon the ruins of France, inflamed the seditions, obtained several victories over the Calvinists, and soon saw himself in a situation to prescribe laws to his prince. He obliged Henry III to annul all the privileges of the Huguenots, and carried so far his imperious demands, that the king, at last, forbade him to come to Paris. Nevertheless, he appeared there in 1588, and obliged the king to leave the city and conclude a treaty with him. Flushed by this triumph, he became imprudent, and clearly showed that he aimed at the highest power. In consequence of the treaty, the estates were assembled at Blois. The king, informed of the ambitious plans of the duke, took counsel with his confidants, D'Aumont, Rambouillet, and Beauvais-Nangis, and all three were of opinion that it was impossible to bring him to a regular trial, but that he must be privately despatched, and that this measure would be justified by his open treason. The brave Crillon refused to take upon himself the execution of this plan. It was therefore intrusted to Lognac, first chamberlain of the king, and captain of 45 Gascon noblemen, of the new royal guard. He selected nine of the most resolute, and concealed them in the king's cabinet. The duke had, indeed, been warned, and his brother, the cardinal, advised him to go to Paris; but, upon the advice of the archbishop of Lyons, who represented to him that his friends would

lose courage, if he left Blois at so favorable a moment, he resolved to await the worst. On the following day, Dec. 23, 1588, he went to the king, and was somewhat concerned at seeing the guards strengthened. As soon as he had entered the first hall, the doors were shut. He preserved, however, a calm exterior, and saluted the bystanders as usual. But when about to enter the cabinet, he was stabbed with several daggers, and, before he could draw his sword, he fell dead, exclaiming, "God have mercy on me." At the time of his death, he was 38 years old. On the following day, the cardinal was also assassinated; but, far from extinguishing the fire of civil war, this double murder only increased the hatred of the Catholics against the king. The high-minded Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) said, upon hearing of the deed, "Had Guise fallen into my hands, I would have treated him very differently. Why," added he, "did he not join with me? We would have conquered, together, all Italy."

GUITAR, or GUITARRA ; a stringed instrument, the body of which is of an oval-like form, and the neck similar to that of a violin. The strings, which are distended in parallel lines from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding hole and bridge, are tuned to the C above Fiddle G, E its third, G its fifth, and their octaves The intermediate intervals are produced by bringing the strings, by the pressure of the fingers of the left hand, into contact with the frets fixed on the key-board, while those of the right agitate the strings and mark the measure. The Spaniards, the reputed inventors of the guitar, derived the name they give it, guitarra, from cithara, the Latin denomination for almost every instrument of the lute kind. The people of Spain are so fond of music, and of the guitar in particular, that there are few, even of the laboring class, who do not solace themselves with its practice. It is with this instrument that the Spanish gentlemen at night serenade their mistresses, and there is scarcely an artificer in any of the cities, or principal towns, who, wher his work is over, does not go to some of the public places and entertain himself with his guitar.

GUIZOT, Francis, formerly professor of modern history at the academy of Paris was born at Nimes, in 1787. He was educated a Protestant, and studied phi losophy and German literature at Geneva He went to Paris, where he devoted him self to literary studies, contributed to sever al valuable journals, and wrote on phil

ological subjects (for instance, his celebrated Nouveau Dictionnaire des Synonymes de la Langue Française, 2d edit. 1822), besides biographical essays and works on education and the state of the fine arts in France. In 1814, after the restoration, he first entered upon a political career, in which he quickly rose, under the patronage of the abbé Montesquiou, and obtained a great influence, first as secretary-general in the department of the interior, and afterwards in the department of justice; but the manner in which he executed the reforms projected by his patron prevented him from being popular. At the return of Napoleon from Elba, he followed Louis XVIII to Ghent, and was appointed by the king maître des requêtes, and, in 1817, counsellor of state. From this time, Guizot showed more moderate principles, and belonged to the party of the doctrinaires. The fall of the minister Decazes (q. v.), in 1820, caused his dismission. The system which had formerly been followed by him, as a protégé of Montesquiou, was now adopted against the liberals by their opponents. Guizot then employed himself as a lecturer on history and an author. His best writings (some of which have gone through several editions) are his Idées sur la Liberté de la Presse (1814); Du Gouvernement Répresentatif et de l'État actuel de la France (1816); Essai sur l'Histoire et sur l'État astuel de l'Instruction en France (1816); Du Gouvernement de la France depuis la Restauration et du Ministère actuel (4th edit., 1821). His work Des Conspirations et de la Justice Politique (2d edit., 1821) contains some important facts concerning espions and provocateurs (informers), which the police uses as its instruments. His essay De la Peine de Mort en Matière politique (1822) deserves notice. In his Essais sur l'Histoire de France, connected with the improved edition of Mably's Observations sur l'Histoire de France (4 vols., Paris, 1823), he shows that the middling class of people forms the strength of a country, and its support in times of danger. He has also edited a Collection des Mémoires relatifs à la Révolution d'Angleterre (Paris, 1823), which is very full of instruction for the present times. He is now publishing a Collection des Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France depuis la Fondation de la Monarchie jusqu'au treizième Siècle (with an introduction and notes, in 30 vols.), which is the first collection of these records of contemporary testimony, and is also important for the history of Germany and of the middle ages. Until the suppression of the censorship, and the abolition of the Normal

school, in 1822, Guizot was royal censor and professor in this institution for education. His lectures on modern history were heard with great applause; but the board of education would not allow them to be repeated in the academic year 1824. Five volumes of his lectures have been printed, under the title Cours d'Histoire Moderne. The more clearly Charles X and his ministers manifested their disposition to reestablish an absolute government, the more decided was the opposition of Guizot to their measures; and he obtained the reputation of one of the ablest, most active and most effective writers of the liberal party He was connected with the Revue Francaise. July 30, 1830, he was elected, by the deputies then assembled, provisionary commissioner for public instruction. When the duke of Orleans was made lieutenantgeneral of the kingdom, Guizot received the port folio of the interior, as provisionary minister; and, when the duke was proclaimed king of the French, he was appointed minister of public instruction, and retained his office until November 2, 1830, when he, with De Broglie, Molé and Louis, was succeeded by count Montalivet, Mérilhou, Maison and Lafitte. Guizot's wife, Pauline, has written several romances, and works on education, which have been well received. But she did herself no credit by a newspaper quarrel with the abbe Salgues. She also wrote, for some time, the articles relating to the theatre, in the Publiciste, and has contributed to several other periodical publications.

GULDBERG, Frederic (with the noble prefix Högh), professor and knight, son of Ove Högh Guldberg, formerly minister of state (who died in 1808), was born at Copenhagen, March 26, 1771, and is one of the most original and excellent of the Danish poets. Among his songs, the Flower of Eternity (Evighedsblomsten) and the Dying Man (Den Döende) are remarkably beautiful. His miscellaneous poems were published, a second time, in 1815-16 (in 3 vols.), with several prose pieces of much beauty, under the title Samlede Smaating. His Digte over bibelske Emner (Poems upon Biblical Subjects, Copenhagen, 1823) are adapted for youth, whose hearts and imaginations they are well calculated to attract. Guldberg has also translated Terence and Plautus (in six vols.).

GULF STREAM. (See Current.)

GULL (larus). These birds are well known every where, being found almost universally spread over the globe. They are distinguished from other sea fowl by their straight bill, bending downwards to

wards the point, and marked below the under mandible by a triangular prominence,by their light body, supported by large wings, by slender legs, palmated feet, and a small hind toe. They are timid and cowardly, except in defence of their young. Generally seen in large flocks, the old and young separate; the larger species frequent the sea, the smaller, lakes or rivers. They walk with tolerable ease, and swim well, but are incapable of diving. They keep much on the wing, and their flight is rapid, strong, and long sustained, even in heavy gales. In sitting, they contract their neck, and rest on one foot. They are extremely voracious, fighting with each other for prey. They are patient of hunger, but will feed on every kind of animal food, either dead or alive, putrid or fresh. Their principal food, however, is fish, of which they will follow the shoals; they catch them with great agility, darting down like an arrow. They breed only once a year, laying from two to four eggs. The species are exceedingly numerous, and resemble each other greatly. The gulls are continually fighting with each other, and the strong plundering the weaker. No sooner does one rise from the water, with a fish in its bill, than it is immediately pursued by others, stronger than itself, and the first that reaches it tears away the spoil. Should, however, the latter not instantly swallow the booty it has acquired, it is, in turn, pursued by others; and, even if it has performed this process, it is oftentimes obliged to disgorge it, when it is seized by one of the pursuers, before it can reach the water. The facility which the gulls have of vomiting their food has been taken notice of, even in their captive state. Some of these birds have been tamed, but, even then, they have always discovered the same quarrelsome and voracious habits. When two are kept together, the weaker generally becomes the victim of the ill nature of the other. Almost all the gulls that appear on our coast are also inhabitants of Europe. This genus is not well understood by naturalists, and much confusion exists as to the species.

GUM; one of the proximate principles of vegetables, distinguished by the following properties :--It is an insipid, inodorous, uncrystallizable solid, more or less transparent, the various colors which the different kinds possess being derived from mixture with coloring principles while exuding in a fluid state. It is insoluble in alcohol, and extremely soluble in water, in which properties it is the reverse of resin. It differs from mucilage only

in being deprived of the water which rendered it fluid; and, of course, when water is added, it again becomes mucilage. This mucilage is apparently not susceptible of fermentation, and may be kept for a long time, as it is less disposed to spontaneous changes than almost any vegetable product. Its chemical composition so nearly approaches sugar, that it may be converted into it by means of nitric acid. Gum, as above defined, is identical in all vegetables, and the different kinds vary only in the quantity and quality of the substances united with them. It exists naturally almost pure in gum Arabic and gum Senegal, and, more or less mixed, in the gum which exudes from the plum, cherry and other fruit-trees, as also in the mucilage of flaxseed, slippery elm, &c. Various resins and gum-resins are commonly confounded under this appellation.

GUM ARABIC is the product of the mimosa nilotica and some other species of the same genus, inhabiting the sandy parts of Arabia, Egypt, Senegal and Central Africa. It exudes spontaneously, in a fluid state, and remains attached to the branches after it has concreted and become solid. This exudation takes place continually, during the whole of the dry season, from October to June, but more copiously immediately after the rains. December and March are the two months in which this gum is collected by the Arabs, with whom it is an important aliment, those tribes that are continually wandering in the desert often making it their principal article of food during a great part of the year. Gum Arabic is obtained in rounded masses, transparent, or of a light yellow color, capable of being easily reduced to a powder, insipid to the taste, or possessing a slight acidity, which, however, is only perceptible by those who use it habitually. It is easily soluble in water, and the solution has the property of conveying pulverized solids through a filter, which would separate them were they suspended merely in water: thus it is impossible, by this means, to separate powdered charcoal from gum water. In pharmacy, gum Arabic is employed to suspend in water substances which, otherwise, could not be kept equally diffused, as balsams, fixed oils, resins, &c.; but its principal consumption is in manufactures, forming the basis of crayons and cakes of water-colors, as well as of writing-ink, and several liquid colors, serving to increase the consistency of these colors, and to prevent their spreading in calico printing, affording