to those in which the aged, children and infirm people are received. More than 15,000 beds are made up at these different establishments, and the annual expenditure is over a million of dollars. From 40 to 50,000 persons are annually accommodated in hôpitaux, or about 4000 at a time. The hospices generally contain nearly 10,000 persons at the same time. The hospitals of Paris are generally clean and in good order, for which they are indebted to the sœurs de la charité, who wait upon the sick, and nurse them with the greatest care. They are not always favorably situated, being often too much confined. The Hôtel des Invalides is destined for military veterans, and contains 7000 men. It has a library of 20,000 volumes. The Hôtel Dieu is the most ancient hospital in Paris, and is situated in the most populous part of the city. Before the revolution, 5000 sick were here huddled together in 1400 beds; but several monasteries were then converted into hospitals, and lying-in women, scrofulous patients, lunatics, children, &c., who had all been crowded together, were separated, and placed in different establishments. The Hospice de la Salpêtrière generally contains several thousand poor women, who are kept at work. In one part is a prison for prostitutes. The Hôpital de la Charité receives only men attacked by acute discases; the Hôpital St. Louis is used as a pest-house; the Hospice des Enfants Trouvés is for foundlings, about 6000 of whom are annually born or received in it; the Hospice de l'Accouchement receives about 3000 women annually; the Hopital des Quinze Vingts, or for 300 blind persons, admits only the indigent; the actual number is over 400. Among the hospitals in London and vicinity, are the Foundling Hospital; the Magdalen Hospital, for reclaiming prostitutes; the Greenwich Hospital and Naval Asylum (see Greenwich); Guy's Hospital, for sick persons and incurable lunatics; Middlesex Hospital; Bethlem Hospital (commonly called Bedlam), for lunatics, &c. The Chelsea Hospital is appropriated for the reception of sick and superannuated soldiers; the number of pensioners is about 400, besides the out or extraordinary pensioners. The hospitals in the U. States are on a smaller scale than those of Europe, and fewer in number, but very well managed.

HOSPITAL FEVER is a malignant form of fever, which has received this title from its being most frequently met with in places of this sort, especially in military and other large hospitals, where many 38

VOL. VI.

men are shut up in a small space and in close air. Under such circumstances, almost any fever will assume a more malignant character, and become more or less contagious. The causes of common hospital fever are to be found in the want of good and wholesome provisions, fatigue, care and anxiety, and, more especially, the corruption of the air, which is always produced by many men living in even a large building, or by fewer, if shut up in a small space; and these causes are found to produce this effect, not only upon the soldier, but upon the poor, of all kinds, and in all places. A similar disease is developed among those confined in prisons and ships, and among the inhabitants of damp, narrow huts, and is called gaol, ship, or typhus fever. The common fever, which often prevails under the last name, has not, indeed, all the characteristics of this form of fever, although it easily assumes them. The hospital fever is only a high degree of that form of disease which is usually called a putrid, or putrid nervous fever; that is, a fever with diminished power and action of the whole nervous system. The contagion produced by hospital, or putrid fever, is capable of producing fever in others, although the fever so produced is often of a different character and appearance; and it should be remarked, that it almost ceases to be contagious by removal to a pure air and well-ventilated apartments. The form assumed by the disease is much affected by the general state of the weather, and by the constitution of the individual. In strong, young, well-fed and full-blooded persons, in whom the arterial system is full, and an inflammatory disposition much developed by stimulating drinks, or a dry, cold air, which is very favorable to inflammation, an inflammatory excitement of the whole nervous system takes place, which may even run to the height of an inflammation of the brain, with delirium, &c. In others, who have been much reduced by bad diet, and by exposure to warm, moist weather, a gastric form of fever is developed, attended also with violent nervous symptoms. If it happens to seize persons in whom the nervous and circulatory systems are much debilitated by any of the causes abovenamed, a fever more like the true hospital fever is produced, which is termed a typhus, putrid, or adynamic fever. In truth, we scarce ever see a form of this fever which is quite unmixed, but all the forms pass into each other, with innumerable shades of accidental difference, arising from difference of the parts most affected,

&c. It will therefore be at once evident, that no universal mode of treatment can be laid down, but that the treatment must be varied according to the causes of the disease, the state, constitution and previous habits of the sick, &c., and according to the changes which are constantly occurring in the course of the disease. The most important modes of guarding against the hospital fever, are to remove the causes of it, to purify the air, to improve the nourishment, allowing a generous diet, and to prevent the sick from being accumulated in great numbers in one apartment. The wards or rooms in which they are or have been collected, should be purified by the vapors of strong mineral acids, which are easily obtained by mixing common salt and red lead or manganese in a vessel of any sort, and then stirring into it a portion of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid. But above all, the rooms should be well ventilated, and the clothes of all kinds should be changed daily.

HOSPITAL, the chancellor. (See Hopital.)

HOSPITAL, the marquis. (See Hopital.) HOSPITALITY. The rites of hospitality were acknowledged and practised from the earliest antiquity, and in the most barbarous ages. Natural feeling taught men to receive the stranger with kindness, in times when there was no commercial intercourse between different countries, and nothing but necessity could induce an individual to leave his home. We find hospitality enjoined in the Mosaic writings, in the poems of Homer, as well as among the Arabs, the Germans, and almost all the nations of antiquity; but different ideas were held in different places as to the degree and extent of the service which was due to the guest. In this respect no people surpass the Arabs. Among them the host receives the stranger who comes to his tent with fraternal kindness. If his provisions fail, he conducts the guest to his neighbor, who now entertains them both with equal generosity. This simple custom was consecrated among the Greeks by their religion. Jupiter, who was hence surnamed the hospitable (Xenios) was the guardian of strangers, and the avenger of the injuries offered them. As we learn from Homer, the belief that the immortals sometimes appeared on earth in human shape contributed to the observance of the rites of hospitality. In the early times of Greece, when increasing commercial intercourse compelled men to make frequent journeys, individuals enter

ed into agreements to afford each other mutual entertainment, whenever business should bring either of them to the county of the other; and this they promised not only for themselves, but for their children and posterity. In Homer we find this custom spoken of. The visitor was kindly saluted. He was bathed, clothed, entertained, and his conversation listened to with pleasure. After nine days, if the stranger had not previously made himself known, the question might be put to him, "Who and whence art thou ?" If he declared himself to be connected by ancient ties of hospitality between their ancestors his host was rejoiced to have renewed the ancient bond. Still more welcome was the guest, if he could show the half of the ring broken between their fathers, in perpetual token of their agreement. The host made presents to the guest at his departure, which were carefully handed down in the family.

HOSPITIUM (Latin; an inn) signifies either a little convent belonging to a religious order, occupied by a few monks, and destined to receive and entertain travelling monks, or houses in uninhabited mountains, erected for the purpose of receiving travellers who have lost their way or are exhausted by fatigue. The most famous of the latter are the hospitium on St. Bernard (q. v.), that on the Simplon built by Napoleon, with another of earlier origin, the hospitium at Val d'Obbia in Piedmont, that on St. Gothard (q. v.), that on the Grimsel, and that on the Luck maner.

HOSPODAR signifies, in the Sclavonie language, lord, and is the title of the princes of Moldavia and Walachia. (q. v.)

HOST (from the Latin hostia, a victim for sacrifice.) Hostia means, in the Lat in of the Christian church, Jesus Christ, in so far as he sacrificed himself for men; and hostia, or host, is also used for the bread (or wafer) and wine in the eu charist, as containing the body and blood of Christ, among those Christian sects who believe in the presence of Christ in the bread and wine. As the wafer alone is given to laymen in the Catholic church, as containing both the body and blood of the Redeemer, the term host is usually ap plied to the consecrated wafer. Common bread was originally used at the Lord's supper; but bread baked particularly and solely for this purpose, large, round oblate, came into use, in the 4th century, which it was customary to break after consecration into as many pieces as there were communicants. The hosts, or smaller wafers,

were introduced into the Latin church in r the 12th century. The Greeks use, for the eucharist, leavened bread, whilst the Roman Catholics use unleavened wafers; which custom was followed by the Lutherans. It is well known, that the Calvinists on the continent, not believing in transubstantiation or consubstantiation, prefer unleavened bread to the wafers. This bread has been adopted in Prussia in the new ritual for the united Lutherans and Calvinists; yet any person, preferring the wafer, may have it, as, at the end of the celebration of the Lord's supper, it is offered to them. The Protestants in England and America use common leavened bread. (For the elevation of the host, see Elevation, and for more information, see Mass.)

HOST, Jens-Kragh; a Danish scholar, doctor of law, born at St. Thomas, Sept. 15, 1772. In 1801, Host was made judge of the royal and municipal court, but, in 1808, was deprived of this place by a decision of the superior court. He appears to have injured his fortune by the freedom of his language. He has contributed much to Danish literature and history. With Guldberg and Haste, he conceived the idea of uniting Sweden and Denmark by literary ties. With Nyerup, Pram and Baggesen, he founded the Scandinavian literary society, of which the publication of the Scandinavian Museum was the consequence. Denmark and Sweden are also indebted to him for many fugitive productions, for many excellent translations, and for the extension of their literary fame. Besides his Nordia, we will mention his Svenske Blade, his Euphrosyne, Iris, Dannora and Dana; and among his translations, his Odins, or the Emigration of the Asen, after Leopold and his Wreath of Romances, from the French and the German. He also published a Swedish grammar and dictionary for Danes. In 1 1810, he wrote Memorials of the Reign of Christian VII; in 1813, Sketch of a History of the Danish Monarchy under Christian VII; 1815, Clio, one vol.; On Politics and History, 5 vols. (1820, &c.). His most important work is Count Struensee and his Ministry (in Danish), (Copenhagen, 1824, 3 vols.), in which the history of that period is, for the first time, correctly and impartially given, and the errors relative to it are corrected.

HOSTILIUS. (See Tullus Hostilius.) HOTEL (French); the mansion of a grand personage; for instance, Hôtel de Condé. Formerly the palace of the king was simply called l'hôtel; hence grand prévôt de

l'hôtel. Hótel-Dieu is the appellation for the ordinary hospitals of the sick; hence the nuns of Hôtel-Dieu. Hótel de Ville is, in France, the town-house. Hôtel is also used for an inn, like the Italian osteria, with which it has a common origin, both being derived from hostis. In this sense, it has passed into the English language.

HOT SPRINGS, in Bath county, Virginia, 40 miles south-west of Stanton. The common temperature of the water is said to be 112°; but it is sometimes so hot as to boil an egg. It is considered useful in curing some diseases. Here is a postoffice. (For the Hot Springs in Arkansas, see Arkansas.)

HOTTENTOTS. The natives of the southern part of Africa are reducible to two distinct families, the Hottentots, and the Betjuanas or Bushwanas (q. v.), to whom the Caffres (q. v.) are related. To the former, or Hottentot family, belong also the Bosjesmans or Bushmen, the Koranas and the Namaquas. When the European colony was first established at the Cape, the inhabitants of the country between it and Orange river were Hottentots, divided into various tribes. Of a moderate height, lean, with high check bones, thick lips, small, half-closed eyes, woolly hair, a mild expression, but indolent and unenterprising, they were despised and oppressed by the colonists. Their filth and indolence, and the harshness and poverty of their language, led the Europeans to consider them as little better than brutes, and by their treatment they almost reduced them to that condition. But a kinder treatment, introduced by the Moravian missionaries, has shown them to be capable of civilization, and not to be wanting in ingenuity and industry. The colonial Hottentots, who were at one time rapidly diminishing on account of the mode of life to which they were reduced, increased in number from 17,431 to 30,549 between 1807 and 1823. Their mutual affection, kindness, integrity, chastity and hospitality are commended by travellers who saw them while yet comparatively independent. A kros or karos (sheep-skin) serves the Hottentot as a dress by day, a bed by night, and a winding sheet in the grave. A thick plaster of dirt and grease covers his head and body; a blunt javelin (assagay) and a dart were formerly his only weapons. The Hottentots eat animal food voraciously, but are often reduced to great abstinence. Milk and water are their common beverage, and they smoke hemp when they cannot get tobacco

Their villages, called kraals, are a circular cluster of bechive-shaped huts, which are covered with mats woven by the women; an opening in front serves as a window, a door and chimney. The Bushmen (q. v.), or wild Hottentots, resemble the Hottentots, strictly so called, in their features and language. The Koranas lead an indolent, wandering life, on the Orange river and its vicinity. The Namaquas are a Hottentot tribe, inhabiting the country on each side of the Orange river, in the lower part of its course.

HOTTINGER; a Swiss family, which has produced several distinguished scholars, particularly theologians:-1. John Henry the elder, born at Zurich in 1620, made such progress in the ancient languages at school, that he was sent to foreign universities at the public expense. In 1638, he set out for Geneva, and went thence to France and Holland. He here studied the Oriental languages in Gröningen. In 1641, he returned, through England, back to his native country, enriched with large stores of knowledge. In 1642, he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history in his native city, and, in 1643, professor of catechetics and the Oriental languages, and contributed much to promote the study of Oriental literature. His reputation was widely spread by his numerous writings upon this subject. He explored the relations of the Eastern languages with uncommon assiduity, and showed what advantages might be thence derived for the interpretation of the Scriptures, in his Grammatica quatuor Linguarum, Hebr., Chald., Syr. et Arab. Harmonica (Zurich, 1649, 4to.); in his Etymologicum Orientale (Frankfort, 1661); Thesaurus Phil. seu Clavis Scripture (Zürich, 3 edit., 1696, 4to.), by which book he contributed greatly to the revival of the study of Oriental literature; and in many other works. In close connexion with this study, he also pursued that of Eastern history and archæology, and shed much light on the history of the Jews and Mohammedans, as generally on the religions and religious sects of the East, in his Historia Orientalis (Zürich, 1651 and 1660, 4to.); Promtuarium seu Bibliotheca Oriental. (Heidelberg, 1658, 4to.),and other works, as likewise in his very valuable Historia ecclesiastica N. T. (Zürich, 1651-67, 9 volumes), extending to the reformation, which, although derived from authentic sources, is not free from prejudices, and is somewhat irregular in its arrangement and unpolished in its style. He endeavored, especially,to obtain accurate information concerning the state of the Eastern churches;

and the results of these inquiries are scattered through his writings. His repu tation in the literary world was so great, that the elector palatine, by a letter written with his own hand, obtained permission from the council at Zürich for him to spend a few years at Heidelberg, to revive the university there, which he did from 1653 to 1661, with the happiest results. But his endeavors to unite the Protestant sects, which the elector favored, encoun tered the usual obstacles. In 1658, he accompanied the elector to the diet at Frankfort, where he became acquainted with the first men of Germany, and inti mate with the great Orientalist Ludolph They formed a plan of sending young men, skilled in Eastern literature, at the prince's expense, to make inquiries into the state of the African and particularly the Ethiopian churches. After his return to Heidelberg, the elector prevailed on the council at Zürich to prolong his leave of absence. He finally returned, in 1661, to Zürich, loaded with honors. Here he was appointed perpetual rector of the university, and received many other honorable offices. He was even sent ambassador to Holland. In 1667, he was on the point of complying with a repeated invitation to visit the university at Leyden; but death prevented him; he was drowned in the Limmat, with three of his children.-2 His son John James, born at Zürich, 1652, began his studies under his father's superintendence, and afterwards held many clerical offices; was, in 1698, professor of theology at Zürich, and died in 1773. J. J. Lavater has written his life. The most valuable of his works is his Ecclesiastical History of Switzerland (Helvetische Kirchengeschichte), in which he endeavored to prove the excellence of his church.-This latter is not to be confounded with John James Hottinger, who was born 1750, was professor at Zürich, and died Feb. 4, 1819, known by his editions of the classics, as Sallust and the work of Cicero De Dirinatione, his translation of this work and of the Offices, the characters of Theophrastus, and many others. This acute and elegant scholar acquired a high repu tation, not merely as a philologian, but also for his works of general criticism, and his other literary productions. His Essay towards a Comparison of the German with the Greek and Roman Poets, is among the most excellent works of the kind.

HOUDON, N.; a distinguished French sculptor, a member of the institute, and of the legion of honor. In 1782, he had already laid the foundations of his fame.

His Diana and his sitting statues of Voltaire, are particularly worthy of mention. The two last are executed from the same model. One of them is placed in the peristyle of the great French theatre. He has also modeled an excellent bust of Rousseau, taken after his death. Besides these works, he has executed busts of D'Alembert, Barthélémy, the late margrave of Anspach, marshal Ney, Napoleon, the empress Joséphine and many others. His statue of Cicero, which is placed in the hall of the former conservative senate, represents the orator as denouncing the traitor Catiline to the assembly, and produces a fine effect. Houdon has also executed, for the use of the academy, two models of the human frame, represented without the skin, and showing great knowledge of the muscles. The statue of Washington and the bust of Lafayette in the capitol at Richmond, Virginia, are also by Houdon.

HOULIERES, Madame. (See Deshoulières.)

HOUND (cams sagax, L.). The hound forms one of the varieties of spaniels, and is distinguished by its long, smooth and pendulous ears. The bloodhound (q. v.) has already been described, and appears to have been the origin of the other sub-varieties, the principal of which are the foxhound, harrier and beagle. England, perhaps, excels all other countries in her breed of hounds, not only from the climate being congenial to them, but also from the great attention paid to their breeding and management. The points of a good hound are thus laid down:-His legs should be perfectly straight, his feet round and not too large, his shoulders back, his breast rather wide than narrow, his chest deep, his back broad, his head small, his neck thin, his tail thick and bushy. As to the size, most sportsmen have their prejudices, some preferring them small, and others large; for general service, however, it appears that a medium is the best; this is the sentiment of Somerville:

"For hounds of middle size, active and strong, Will better answer all thy various ends, And crown thy pleasing labors with success." It is very essential that all the hounds in a pack should run well together; to attain which they should be of the same sort and size. The management of hounds may be considered as a regular system of education, from the time they are taken into the kennel. The feeding of a kennel of foxhounds is one of the most striking illustrations of the power of training to

produce complete obedience. The feeder stations himself at the door, and calls each dog individually; the animal instantly ad vances; the rest, however impatient they may be, remaining quiet till their turn arrives. In these kennels, a barbarous custom of these dogs towards each other has sometimes been observed. If a hound gets down of his own accord from a bench on which he has been lying, no notice is taken of it by the others; but if he should unfortunately fall from the bench by accident, his companions fly at him and worry him to death. The beagle is the smallest of the dogs kept for the chase, and is only used in hunting the hare, and, though far inferior in speed to that animal, will follow, by its exquisite scent, with wonderful perseverance, till it fairly tires the hare. The harrier differs from the beagle in being somewhat larger, as well as more nimble and vigorous; they are also used almost exclusively in the chase of the hare. One of the most extraordinary hunts of this animal took place in England some years since, showing the perseverance of her pursuers. After a hard chase of 16 miles, the timid creature, finding herself closely pushed by the dogs, took to the sea, and, being followed by the whole pack, after braving the ocean for near a quarter of a mile, fell a sacrifice to her stanch pursuers, and was brought safe on shore by one of them.

HOUR; the 24th part of a day (q. v.). In many countries, the hours are counted from midnight, and 12 hours are twice reckoned. But in some parts of Italy, 24 hours are counted, beginning with sunset, so that noon and midnight are every day at different hours. Each hour is divided into 60 minutes, these into 60 seconds, these into 60 thirds, &c. Many nations are totally unacquainted with the division of the day into 24 equal parts; with others, the hours of the (natural) day are longer or shorter than those of the night. (See Day, and Sidereal Time.) The fixed stars complete their apparent revolution round the earth in 24 hours of sidereal time, and therefore pass through 360 degrees in 24 hours, or 15 degrees in 1 hour. If we suppose two observers 15 degrees of longitude distant from each other, one of them has the fixed star one hour of sidereal time, or the sun one hour of solar time, later in his meridian than the other. Meridians are thence called hour-circles, or horary circles, by which name they are known in dialling. A horary angle is that angle which any hour-circle makes with the meridian of the observer. If, for in