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Foreign Literary Gazette.

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ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING AND ON ANCIENT ALPHABETS: WITH SPECIMENS. Among the most wonderful and constantly attractive arts elicited by the powers of the human mind, there is none on which we dwell with such unremitted complacency as on the art of Writing; by which we record our thoughts, and fix our ideas for future rumination; by which the man of business keeps his accounts, while the philosopher embodies uis ideas; which, directed into a thousand channe's, is here employed in calculating the weight of the earth itself, of its fellow globes, whose immense circuits obey the same motive impulse, and there assists in estimating the dimensions of a living atom, invisible to mortal sight, and occupying no greater space in the world, than the ten thousandth, or the thirty thousandth, part of an inch.

What were History without writing? what were all the occurrences that ever have befallen our species? Where were the wisdom to be learned from events? and where the aggregate of those instructions which the faults, the follies, the sagacity and the devices of mortals year after year, and age after age, afford their posterity? On the other hand-the rudiments of this wonderful art contain no principle in themselves, that, being referred to prototypes constantly the same, may at all times renew the same ideas. From this remark, the written language of China stands for ward as an acknowledged exception; and, certainly, as we have formerly had occasion to submit to our readers, it proceeds on principles of more general delineation, than any other with which we are acquainted. Reduced to its elements, each word is the representative of a thing, or things; although in combination, the figure and the reference is overwhelmed, if not entirely lost.*

Compare LITERARY PANORAMA, Vol. XII. pp. 848. 1052. We cannot do better than repeat here, a part of Dr. Marshman's Observations. "They include the most remarkable objects of nature; as the sun, the moon, a river, a mountain, fire, water, earth, wood, stone, &c.; the principal parts of a house, as the roof, the door, as well as those utensils most frequently in use, as a knife, a spoon, (or chop-stick) a seat, a box, a staff, &c. Domestic animals also find a place here, as the goat, the cow, the horse, the dog, &c.; nor are the grand supports of life omitted, as grain, pulse, Vol. II. Lit. Pan. New Series. June 1.

Yet even this system is arbitrary, in some points of view; for no emotions of the mind can be represented in figures; neither can dates, referring to periods of time, past or future, &c.: and except in a few of the more obvious symbols, nature seems to have receded before art and convention; as is evident from the necessity for studying this system with laborious perseverance, as well by natives as by strangers. But, if this system were originally drown from nature, and connected by observation, then, there can be no reason for ascribing the art of writing in its other branches to Divine Revelation. No interposing angel taught the Hindoo, or the Egyptian, if the Chinese were able to accomplish the same effect, without celestial assistance. When Pliny, therefore, ascribes writing to the Gods, we merely learn his conviction of its deep antiquity; when pious writers among ourselves, trace it up to Adam, and suppose the first of men to be the first of authors, they do but declare what they do not know; and favour their readers with an apology for instruction, instead of instruction itself.

It must be confessed, however, that when once fixed by usage and popularity, the delineations of the Chinese language are less likely to be entirely lost, as to their verbal import, than the characters of the western nations, which contain no principle adapted to revive, by its allusion to fixed objects, the idea of any sound, or sentinient, of any person or thing, of any phrase, or syllable. Under these circumstances, it becomes a question, deserving of consideration, whether other uations also did not derive their characters from natural objects? and having first adopted symbols, whether they did not afterwards divide and sub-divide, them into phrases, expressions, words, and syllables? We cannot expect to find traces of such a process in modern alphabets; but, by examining those which are the most aucient, and comparing the principles by which they are governed, we may make some advance towards the happy, and simple ideas on which they are constructed.

The first thing that strikes us in all writing is, the order of the lines formed by the letters, or by which the letters are governed; and this presents noticeable varieties. The next is the form of the letters as to their general appearance to the eye;

another at least equally important particular is, the order in which the words are to be read and understood.

flesh, fish, &c. nor the primary relations of life, father, mother, son, daughter, however difficult to be represented.”

When a Chinese is about to begin a piece of writing, the first thing he does is to rule a perpendicular line, that marks the center of his characters, which are to be read downwards. On this line, he branches out the sketch of his characters to the right and to the left. Directly the contrary, as our readers will perceive by inspecting the fac-simile annexed, the Sans crit is governed by a horizontal line, on which all the letters appear to hang. This enters into the form of the letter; a few short strokes, having the air of flourishes, or after thoughts, rise occasionally above the line; but the body of the_letter is below the line. The Marhatta, Bengalee, Sikh, Kashmeer, Hindoostanee, Uhumiya, are evidently variations from this original. Another principle is, that every character is formed by a first stroke at right angles with the primary line; which causes the square form to predominate in this alphabet.

bricks which contain these letters, being taken from the foundations of the tower of Babel, are as old as the first foundations, they must be among the most antient inscriptions in existence. If they are no older than the days of Nebuchadnezzar, who completed that structure, though they will not compare with the Mosaic writings and others, vet the letters upon them may be transcripts from alphabets of much earlier. date. Be that as it may, they are formed of straight lines which is our present object.

letters, which are attributed by the learned If we examine the forms of the Welsh of the Principality to the Druids, we find that they also avoid the circle; that their limbs, or members, are uniformly straight, and that their system must be referred to the principles of the square. In an enlarged dissertation this would deserve both enquiry and verification. Here we can only

Extremely different from the Sanscrit, purpose:--for, as these letters were de accept it as a fact, and apply it to our the Coriya, Telinga, Burman, and Cinga-rived from the flexures of twigs, and con tese, are all formed of circular figures: and there is no such a thing as a square figure among them; scarcely, radeed, a straight line. Does not this indicate an origia totally distinct?-derived from a different race of men? It seems also to announce an origin later in point of time; and after a facility had heen obtained by practice in using the pencil. The Sanscrit affords few circles, if any; and this it has in common with the Chinese.

tained symbolical references; it seems a fair question to ask, whether the nail-headed twigs, also,or from other natural productions characters, might not be derived from in the country where they originated? By this, they approach the primary idea of the Chinese-imitation: and, if this could be allowed of the Sanscrit, which also is a square character, then we see how one a simple, but felicitous conception, became standing there is no apparent similitude the parent of the Art of Writing; notwith between the Chinese character and any other.

Our readers have seen, that the trees of the pliant twigs of trees, were symbolis were symbolical; and that letters, formed from which they were cut: 2. as letters, of cal also, 1. as parts of the different trees, conventional signs of words, or syllables, ing known to two parties enabled them to as parts of words, the import of which be correspond together.

If the Chinese written language were formed by delineations of natural objects, taken generally, and without restriction, it leads to an casy conception by what means the same process, employed on a restricted series of objects, natural or artificial, might deduce from them a variety of figures to which fired notions might be adapt ed, and correspondent names be given.So a single stroke, 1, might, and naturally would, recall the idea of one: and II of two; I, of three; III of four, and so on. Moreover, these strokes might be laid in another position, as, or, or, &c.cimen of the language of flowers; the We lately had occasion to submit a spe and in this horizontal position, they might covert meanings of which were at least receive another signification; and they amusing; but, they were somewhat more, might easily be made to-cross the former; if they may be allowed to justify the same which would give a third series of significations, &c. Something, not unlike this power ascribed to twigs; against which we conjecture, may be recovered, perhaps, on discover no cogent reason. examination of such alphabets as present the most plausible claims to antiquity.

It is remarkable, that the nail-headed character of Persepolis and Babylon, which (the last especially) is extremely. antient, is exclusively composed of straight lines, and presents no circles. Yet, if the

really derived from the heads of arrows, But, if this nail-headed character were and varied in form by the different positions in which those weapons were placed

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then it should seem to be a less antient, In the character Invention than that which was suggested

found on Babylonian

by twigs; as twigs were certainly known bricks, he perceived the Estrangelo-Syriac toman long before arrows were invented,

or even the ore of which they are made, both being equivalent to the Hebrew was drawn from the mine. The hint also. And in the Cuneiform alphabets may seems to be susceptible of completion in too be discovered a letter of which the princiinstantaneous a manner, not to have been derived from something already under-pal feature consists in three upright strokes stood, from something not altogether in or wedges thus, or . Mr. Lich the state of a rude conception, merely. tenstein resolves this into the Hebrew w.

Here we might notice the different manners of reading these ancient modes of writing. Chinese is read downwards: in which it is singular: Sanscrit, Hebrew, Arabic, &c. is read from right to left: others

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from left to right: and several extremelyiíí He also finds in the ancient Syriac

ancient Greek inscriptions. from right to left, and from left to right alternately. -But we must study brevity.

These hints are introductory to extracts from an article that appeared in the CLAS SICAL JOURNAL for April last,--in which the writer reports discoveries-or supposed discoveries, made by a Mr. Lichteustein, who, some years ago, published at Helmstad, in a quarto volume of about 200 pages, “Tentamen Palæographia AssyrioPersice," an Attempt to explain the ancient writing of the Assyrian-Persian Empire, &c. He also promised a second volume. Mr. L's. opinion was, that most Asiatic monuments of antiquity, bearing inscriptions, on this side the rivers Oxus and Indus, may be referred to the descendants of Shem; and, therefore, that a comparison between their alphabetical characters would illustrate them, mutually. On this principle, we might say, that as families often retain a similarity in their hand writing, so the consanguinity of nations may be traced in the family-likeness of their alphabets. Whatever contributes to elucidate the history of mankind justifies attention, and becomes our pages. We close with a few extracts from the communication referred to, in the work already mentioned.

« Most, affirms Mr. L. perhaps all, of the cuneiform characters, belong to the same class of Semitick elements, to which may be referred the writing of cognate families, younger by several centuries; such as the Punic, Sassanian-Persic, Estrangelo-Syriac, and Cufic-Arabic. A resemblance of form, in three or four instances, first led Mr. Lichtenstein to a general and laborious comparison of all the ancient alphabets.

or Hebrew a beth, the Zendo-Medic character thus represented ; seen also in Aramæan or Nabathean inscriptions, (published by Niebuhr ;) in Assyrian, (as on an antique in the "Monumens Inédits" of Monsieur Millin :) in Palmyrene, (as given by Wood,) on Babylonian bricks and other monuments of indisputable antiquity.

"Mr. Lichtenstein proceeds to state (page 17) that three great nations or families principally flourished at the time when Chilminar or the palace of Persepolis, and the royal tombs in its vicinity were constructed. Those nations were, probably, he says, the Persians, Medes, and Arameans; these latter comprehending the Assyriaus and Elamites; while the Bactrians, a powerful and numerous people, may have been confounded with the Medes...

"In the sixth section, (chap. 1.) an analysis of every letter is given, according to the Hebrew order of Alphabetical succession. Here we learn that the simple upright wedge or arrow-head is, in power, equivalent to the alif, or first letter of the Arabians, which in form also it resembles. The shorter and more obtuse wedge, described in general, with a diagonal inclination, represents the Hebrew› iod.

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"In the sixth section, (chap. 2.) we find some observations on magical cylinders, exhibiting characters of the arrow-headed alphabets: some of those have been discovered in Asia, and a few in Egypt, tive artists during the Persian supremacy where probably they were made by nain that country, as we are authorised to suppose, from the inaccurate forms of several letters. Mr. L. acknowledges his obligations to Sir Joseph Banks, for an impression or drawing of an Asiatic cylindri ૨૩

CHINA.

National Appellation: Men.

cal antique peculiarly interesting, which, he says, once belonged to the Florentine Museum, and, as he asserts, proves most indisputably that the arrow-headed inscriptions are to be read from right to left.nations assume that appellation as a people,

IT is remarkable that almost all savage

As we have not seen this Volume but which in their native tongue signifies men, are only reporting its contents in an abor the men; this is common also among stract form, from another report, we cannot many Asiatic nations; but is remarkable more particularly describe this antique than among the Chinese, who, not content with by saying, that it contains representations calling their country “what is under heaven" -meaning the whole world; with naming of the Triad worshipped by the ancient Sabeaus; or the Trimurti of the Hindoo their Emperor by titles due only to diviBrahmans. One figure represents Zoharahity and the four divisions of their army, the Queen of Heaven, Venus Urania, the tu-by the four winds of heaven, or the ele telary deity of the Moon and the Planet Venus. Another represents her husband Ash; and the third, Hakem, with a bird's legs, and a scorpion's tail. This deity ap; pears to be Harpocrates, Vishnu, and the tutelary divinity of the planet Mercury. If we are not mistaken this figure occurs among the Egyptian Abraxas.

As a specimen of the cuneiform writing, these two proper names, with the intermediate word, are given in the original and the corresponding Arabic characters.

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هقم

عش ابی

MKII IBA HSA

nents, call themselves Djin, MAN. This
word is usually pronounced Tin or Sin,
which is the name of the nation —(and
abroad as at home.
hence our appellation, Chinese)—as well

Chinese Agriculture and Implements.

tablishment of the Chinese monarchy, cannot fail to have made great progress, and in fact M. de Lasteyrie has made us acquainted with several utensils more simple and more convenient than those used by Europeans; and he indicates some highly useful improvements respecting the culture

of fruit-trees.

A work by M. Lasteyrie du Saillant treats on all the branches of the agriculture and the rural and domestic œconomy of the Chinese. It is collected from all the authors who have written upon China, and embellished with a very great number of drawings made in China and by Chinese, in which are represented all the processes of their industry, and all the instruments which they employ. This great empire, in which an immense population is entirely supported by agriculture, and A beginning thus made, may gradually where this art has been honoured and proadvance to a complete discovery of the sys-tected without interruption since the first estem on which these hitherto obscure and unintelligible characters have been formed and combined. M. Lichtenstein, as we learn from the article referred to, has proposed translations of inscriptions which occupy many lines; for the accuracy of which he depends on Le Bruyn, Nibuhr, &c. These do not reveal historical events, or afford information on the ancient state of Persia; they prove to be mostly re-iterated praises of the Sultan Darius, if Mr. L. be correct,-equally without elegance and energy. It is most likely, that if we could decypher the hieroglyphics of Egypt, they also would deceive our expectations, and merely furnish examples of complimentary phrases, raising mortals to divinity, either during their life time, or after their decease. How far these alphabets may assist in tracing certain characters which appear to be mingled among the [later] hieroglyphics, we cannot say. Neither can we say how far the symbolical system of these delineations might be illustrated from that of the Chinese: both consist of objects drawn from nature; and they may have many ideas, in common. It would be strange enough, should the hieroglyphics of China explain those of Egypt!

DENMARK.

Dr. Ramussen is assiduously engaged in forming a Catalogue of the Arabic and Persian MSS. which are preserved in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. It will be printed.

Dr. Ramussen is recently named Professor of the Oriental languages in the University of Copenhagen.

M. Galiotti, master of the ballets at Copenhagen has composed a grand ballet, intitled Macbeth: Wallich, the painter is engaged on the decorations, and the music is composed by Schall, the music master tothe Chapel Royal.

Among the new Periodical works published in Denmark, the three following have been distinguished: Frigga: the Athenium: Dauora. They all contain miscellanies in prose and verse: criticisms

on the Theatre, and other public institu- from England to China, was able, after tions: aununciations of Works intended, &c. little more than a years' residence in China, Polite Arts: Painting; Engraving.-M. to compose cater hisins, and other small Nathanson, a wealthy individual of Copen-tracts, for the use of Chinese youth, who bagen, has caused to be executed at his ex- were likely to prove converts. This lanpence, a Gallery of Holberg; on the planguage, therefore, must possess some facili of the "Shakespeare Gallery" in London.ties for its acquisition, which are not comEach of the comedies of this favourite mon in Europe, where no foreigner would Danish Dramatic author, will furnish two think of composing any work for the use scenes, which make suitable subjects for of natives, after un longer time spent in the pencil; and they will in the sequel bestudy of the means of intercourse.] engraved by the first artists in the Danish Sanscrit Literature rendered Public. capital. Lorenzen professor of printing, The same day, M. Chezy also com and Eckersberg, an artist of reputation, menced his Course of Sanscrit Literature. have already finished several of these pic-This discourse being introductory, was entures, which have been exhibited at the riched with a profusion of brillant and Academy of Painting; and they are in the lively sayings, phrases, and turns of exhands of Professor Clemans, who is pro-pression, borrowed from the writers whose ceeding with the engraving of them. The beauties it was his intention to analyse on choice of the scenes has been committed to following occasions: a Poetical Episode, Schwartz, the actor. which he introduced with considerable address, made the most lively impression on the minds of his auditory.

FRANCE.

Commercial System: Loss to Literature. Among the losses sustained by Litera ture, in consequence of the famous Continental System, one deserves to be recorded. It was a translation into French of the Asiatic Researches, printed at the Imperial Printing-Office, and completed by numerous and important additions, with citations of texts in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, San scrit, Mancheou, &c. from types cut and cast on purpose for the undertaking. The first two volumes were almost all sold by auction —were bought up by speculators in licences for colonial produce-were exported as valuable and costly French productions, and —were thrown into the sea, in order to get rid of them, by those who had commercial anticipations on the other parts of the cargo! Chinese Learning introduced to the Public. On New Year's Day, 1815. M. Abel Remusat, delivered the introductory discourse to a Series of Lectures on the Language and Literature of China, which his Majesty Louis XVIII had ordered to be instituted in the Royal College of France. The notice given of a Public Course intended to illustrate and to teach a language so famous throughout Europe for its singularities, and for the numerous difficulties which surround it, collected a very numerous auditory. The Professor stated at length, and with great clearness, the political, religious, and literary advantages connected with the Chinese language. He combatted with great vigour and effect, the vulgar prejudice that describes this language as the most difficult of all that are known.

[To this observation we ought to add, that Mr. Morrison, the Missionary sent

of them finished, before that unhappy We suppose that these courses were both event by which the King was again exiled from the throne of his ancestors.

GERMANY.

It is proper to notice the following work lest the nature of its title should mislead incautious bibliopolists. Under the title of Forests of Ancient Germany, Messrs. Grimm had begun to publish in a periodical work the Literature of Ancient Germany. It was suspended by the operations of the war; but has been resumed; and the second volume is in great forwardness at the press of Koemer, at Frankfort. It appears in parts; 'of which six form a volume.

Method of Gilding Steel.

M. GEHLEN gives the following method of gilding steel. The part of the polished surface to be gilt is to be rendered rough by means of nitric acid; and then the steel dipped into a solution containing the gold, which adheres to the roughened surface with sufficient tenacity to admit of being burnished.

HOLLAND.

Can the momentum of Light be ascertained?

Nothing is more difficult than to deduce correct inferences in Experimental Philosophy. The experiments themselves may be perfectly well performed, yet an invisible something shall render them defective. M. Van Marum of Holland, in repeating the experiment of an English Philosopher, supposes he has detected a cause of error, not before imagined. Mr. Michael had caused the focus of the rays collected by a burning mirror, to fall on a vertical

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