not considered a disgrace. In some countries, criminals sentenced to the galleys are branded in a similar way to this day. STILES, Ezra, a president of Yale college, was the son of the reverend Isaac Stiles, of North Haven, Connecticut. He graduated in that institution in 1746, with the reputation of being one of the greatest scholars it had ever produced. He then studied law, but subsequently devoted himself to theology, and settled at Newport, as pastor of the Second church, where he continued from 1755 to 1776. During this and several succeeding years, the enemy were in possession of Newport, and the inhabitants of the town scattered. Doctor Stiles was solicited to preach in several places: he accepted the invitation from the church at Portsmouth, where he was looked up to with great admiration. In 1788, he was chosen president of Yale college, and continued to adorn that station, by his great learning, abilities and piety, until his death, May 12, 1795, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. In person doctor Stiles was small, but well proportioned. His countenance was expressive of benignity and mildness, and his manners were amiable and kind. He had a thorough knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and French languages; in the Samaritan, Chaldee, Syriac and Arabic he had made considerable progress, and had bestowed some attention on the Persian and Coptic. He was well versed in most branches of mathematical knowledge. He had a thorough acquaintance with the rabbinical writings, and with those of the fathers of the Christian church. Sacred literature was his favorite study; and next to it he most delighted in astronomy. As a preacher, he was impressive and eloquent in a high degree: the intrinsic excellence of his sermons was enhanced by the energy of his delivery. He published various discourses, among which was an election sermon, entitled The United States elevated to Glory and Honor, preached May 8, 1783. He also wrote a history of the three judges of Charles I (Whalley, Goffe and Dixwell), and left an unfinished ecclesiastical history of New England, and more than forty volumes of manuscripts.

STILICHO; a Vandalic general, in the service of the emperor Theodosius the Great, whose niece Serena he married. Theodosius having bequeathed the empire of the East to his son Arcadius, and that of the West to his second son, Honorius, the former was left under the care

of Rufinus, and the latter under the guardianship of Stilicho. (See Western Empire.) No sooner was Theodosius no more, than Rufinus stirred up an invasion of the Goths in order to procure the sole dominion, which Stilicho put down, and effected the destruction of his rival. After suppressing a revolt in Africa, he marched against Alaric, whom he signally defeated at Pollentia. After this, in 406, he repelled an invasion of barbarians, who penetrated into Italy under Rhadagasius, a Hun or Vandal leader, who formerly accompanied Alaric, and produced the entire destruction both of the force and its leader. Either from motives of policy or state necessity, he then entered into a treaty with Alaric, whose pretensions upon the Roman treasury for a subsidy he warmly supported. This conduct excited suspicion of his treachery on the part of Honorius, who massacred all his friends during his absence. He received intelligence of this fact at the camp of Bologna, whence he was obliged to flee to Ravenna. He took shelter in a church, from which he was inveigled by a solemn oath, that no harm was intended him, and conveyed to immediate execution, which he endured in a manner worthy his great military character. Stilicho was charged with the design of dethroning Honorius, in order to advance his son Eucherius in his place; and the memory of this distinguished captain has been treated by the ecclesiastical historians with great severity. Zosimus, however, although otherwise unfavorable to him, acquits him of the treason which was laid to his charge; and he will live in the poetry of Claudian as the most distinguished commander of his age. (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. 29 and 30.)

STILL. (See Distillation.)
STILLING. (See Jung.)

STILLINGFLEET, Edward, bishop of Worcester, was born in 1635, and received his education at St. John's college, Cambridge, where he was elected, in 1653, to the first fellowship that became vacant after he had taken his bachelor's degree. His chief work, Origines Sacra, or a Rational Account of Natural and Revealed Religion, is esteemed for the erudition which it displays. It was followed (1664) by a treatise On the Origin and Nature of Protestantism. Having distinguished himself by the prominent part which he took previous to the revolution, against the establishment of the Romish church in England, he was elevated to the see of Worcester by William III. Besides

the writings enumerated, he was the author of an appendix to Tillotson's Rule of Faith (1676); the Unreasonableness of Separation (1683); and Origines Britannice, or Antiquities of the Churches in Britain (folio, 1685). A short time before his death, bishop Stillingfleet engaged in a controversy with Locke, respecting some part of that philosopher's writings, which he conceived had a leaning towards materialism. His death took place in 1699. His works have been collected and published entire, in six folio volumes (1710).

STILL LIFE, in painting; the representation of inanimate objects, such as dead animals (game, fishes, &c.), furniture, sometimes with fruits and flowers in addition. The interest of such representations can consist only in the form, grouping and light; hence the pictures of still life belong to the lowest species of painting. But some scenes of still life are of a higher order than others. The object of the lowest kind is merely to produce a close imitation of nature. A higher kind combines objects so as to form an interesting whole; and the highest employs the objects only to express a poetical idea, as in representing the room of a painter, a table with Christmas presents, the game of a hunter returned from his day's sport. All these may be so represented as to have a poetical character, by reminding us of the individuals with whom they are associated. The Dutch painters Van Elst, John Fyt, Francis Sneyders, David Koning, John Weeninx, Melchior Hondekoeter, William Kalf, and Van Streeck, are distinguished for the representation of still life.

STIMULANTS are all those medicinal substances, which, applied either externally or internally, have the property of accelerating the pulse and quickening the vital actions. They are among the most valuable and important of medicines, and perhaps are more often the direct means of saving life than any others. But as they are powerful, their injurious effects, when misapplied, have been even more prejudicial to mankind than their best use has been beneficial. In fact, it may be said, that the abuse of this one class of medicines, under the names of cardiacs, cordials, alexipharmics, &c., was the cause of more numerous deaths during the dark ages of medicine, than the sword and the pestilerce united. The dreadful mortality of the small-pox and of fevers during the middle ages, and even during the earlier parts of the last century, were

mainly owing to the administration, by nurses and physicians, of strong cordials, and heating stimulants of all sorts, the tendency of all of which was to increase the violence of the disease, although they were intended merely to expel the noxious and poisonous humors from the system. But, happily for mankind, a more cautious use of these articles has been introduced, and they are now the constant means of preserving, when properly applied, the life which they were formerly so quick to destroy. Stimulants are either simple and direct in their operation, as the external application of heat in all forms, dry and moist, by friction, &c., the application to the stomach of hot liquors, spices, camphor, hartshorn, warm and aromatic gums and oils, as mint, cardamom, cajeput, ginger, assafoetida, red pepper, spirits of turpentine, &c.; or they act first as stimulants, but produce afterwards effects of a different character, as is the case with all which are termed diffusible stimulants, as wine, brandy, and spirits of all sorts, opium, &c., all of which are highly stimulant at first, and in small quantity, but afterwards, and when taken in larger doses, produce exhaustion, debility, sleep and death. The first class are, upon the whole, the most safe, and should be always used, in preference to the last, when they can be had, in all cases of suspended animation, from cold, drowning, suffocation, &c.; while the others are more valuable for their secondary and remote effects, by means of which they ease pain, relieve spasm, &c.; and for these purposes they should be used freely, as they can do no hurt, while the violence of the disease subsists. But they should never be resorted to, unless pain is urgent, or debility become so great as to endanger life.

STINK-POT; an earthen jar, charged with powder, grenades, and other materials of an offensive and suffocating smell. It is sometimes used by privateers, to annoy an enemy whom they design to board.

STIPPLING. (See Engraving.)

STIRIA (in German, Steiermark); a province of the Austrian empire, which takes its name (see Marches) from the county of Steier, in the Land above the Ens. The eastern part was anciently a portion of Pannonia, the western of Noricum, which were conquered by the Romans at the close of the last century before the Christian era. The Avars afterwards occupied Upper Stiria, and the Veneti Lower Stiria; whence the latter was called

the Wendish mark. Charlemagne set markgraves over it; and, as the counts of Steier were among the number, it hence received the name of Steiermark. It is bounded north by the archduchy of Austria, east by Hungary, south by Carniola and Carinthia, and west by Carinthia and Salzburg. Population, 836,128; square miles, 8480. Upper Stiria lies to the north, and is mountainous, consisting, in a great measure, of a continuation of a branch of the Alps. Lower Stiria comprises the southern part. A number of lateral branches of the Alps extend into Lower Stiria, but become gradually lower as they remove from the main chain, till they present nothing but small elevations. There are, however, but few extensive plains. The rivers are the Drave, Save, Muhr and Ens. The climate in the elevated parts is cold, but the air is pure and elastic; the soil, except on the high mountains, very fertile, producing wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, and in warmer situations, wheat. Great attention is paid to raising cattle, and poultry is abundant. Agriculture is in a backward state. Stiria abounds in mineral productions. The iron mines are the most important, and yield annually from 16,000 to 20,000 tons. Salt and coal are abundant. Gold, silver and copper hardly defray the expense of working: lead is more common. Cobalt, arsenic and molybdena are found. The manufactures are chiefly derived from the mines. The exports consist of metals, corn, flax, wine, clover-seed and cattle. The Stirians have the hospitality, frankness and simple habits of an agricultural people; but they are imperfectly educated, though parish schools have been established in the principal villages. The majority are Catholics, though the Protestants enjoy a full, and the Jews a limited, toleration. The chief town is Grätz. (q. v.) STIRLING, LORD. (See Alexander, William.)

STITH, William, president of William and Mary college, Virginia, was born in that province. He embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and, in 1740, withdrew from the laborious office which he had sustained in the college. He published a history of the first discovery and settlement of Virginia (Willianisburg, 8vo., 1747). It brings down the history only to 1624. An appendix contains a collection of charters relating to the period comprised in the volume. Besides the copious materials of Smith, the author derived assistance from the manuscripts of his uncle, sir John Randolph, and from

the records of the London company, put into his hands by colonel William Byrd, president of the council, and from the valuable library of this gentleman. Mr. Stith was a man of classical learning, and a faithful historian; but he was destitute of taste in style, and his details are exceedingly minute.

STOA. (See Stoics.)
STOAT. (See Ermine.)

STOBEUS, John, the name of a Greek writer, who, about the middle of the fifth century, was the author of a variety of miscellaneous works, most of which have perished; but his collection of excerpts from those of various philosophers and poets, has come down to posterity, and is important, from the fragments of lost authors which it contains. It consists of four books, of which the third and fourth form a separate work; and its extracts are important contributions to the history of philosophy. The best edition is that of Heeren (Göttingen, 1792-1801, 4 vols.).

STOCK EXCHANGE; originally the building, in London, where the stock brokers assemble to transact their business. It was erected in 1804, in consequence of the inconvenience to which they were subjected, and the general interruption of public business, occasioned by the stockjobbers, who intermingled with them when they transacted business in the bank rotunda. No person is allowed to act here but regular stock brokers, who are balloted for annually. The name is also applied in general to the place where the same business is transacted in other cities. The great stock exchanges of Europe are those of Amsterdam, London, Paris, and Frankfort on the Maine, which decide the price of stocks in all the rest of the world. Those of Petersburg, Berlin and Vienna are of much less importance. We have given an account of the stocks of different countries in the article Public Stocks: we shall here give a view of the manner of creating, purchasing, and transferring stock, as practised in London. loans are paid at stated periods, by instalments of 10 or 15 per cent., and the terms on which they are made generally occasion an increase on different kinds of stock, to the amount of three per cent. and upwards (according to the emergency and state of the money market) more than the sum borrowed. Thus, for every hundred pounds capital, new stock is created to the amount of one hundred and three pounds. The difference is called the bonus, and the aggregate of the ad

New

sale of stock, of which they are not possess ed at the time of such bargain; and £100 on every broker or agent employed in procuring the said bargain. (See Stock Exchange.) STOCKBRIDGE; a post-town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, on both sides of the Housatonic. The river runs nearly west through this town, and then turns to the south. The intervals are very rich, and well cultivated. There are some factories on the river. It is a very pleasant town, about 130 miles west of Boston, on the mail route from Springfield to Albany. Population in 1830, 1580. Here was the residence of the Stockbridge tribe of Indians, till they removed to New Stockbridge, near the Oneidas, in New York, in 1775. This town suffered severely from the attacks of the Indians in 1754-5.

STOCKHOLM; the capital of Sweden, and the handsomest city in the north of Europe, situated at the junction of the lake Mälar with an inlet of the Baltic; lon. 18° 4′ E.; lat. 59° 21' N.; population in 1826, 79,526. Stockholm is generally described as standing on seven islands, but is chiefly built on three, of which the small one in the centre constituted the original city, and is still the most busy part of the town, and the residence of the principal merchants. The Norrmalm and Södermalm, the two principal suburbs, occupy several islands. The form of the city is an oblong, and its situation is extremely picturesque, as well from the mixture of land and water as from the unevenness of the ground on which it is built. The view from the higher grounds embraces edifices of all sorts, and vessels at anchor, or sailing across the channels, and is terminated by mountains, with a variety of romantic scenery. Constantinople is perhaps the only city of Europe which surpasses it in situation. There are thirteen stone bridges, and several of wood. The houses in the central part are of stone or brick, covered with plaster, of four or five stories, with their foundations on piles, but in the suburbs of only one or two stories, and partly of wood. Among the public buildings are the royal palace, the palace or house for the nobility of the diet, arsenal, bank, royal stables, warehouse for iron, hospitals, and twenty-four churches, eighteen of which are Lutheran. The royal palace is a large quadrangular edifice, the lower part of the walls of polished granite, the upper part of brick, covered with stucco, and is accounted second to no palace in Europe,

except that at Versailles. The literary associations are numerous and respectable; the principal are the academy of sciences, founded in 1739, having a museum, library, an observatory, and 160 members; the Swedish academy, founded in 1786, for improving the Swedish language, having eighteen members; the academy of fine arts, history and antiquities; the military academy, academy for painting and sculpture, and for music, and the medical college. The royal library contains about 50,000 volumes, and there are several important private collections. Stockholm is the mercantile emporium of the eastern part of Sweden. The harbor is of great depth, and so capacious that 1000 vessels may lie here in safety; and the largest come close up to the quays. The number of vessels that enter annually is, on an average, about 1000. The chief exports are iron and steel, also copper, pitch, tar, and timber; imports, colonial produce, wine, fruit, salt, and British manufactures. The manufactures are various, but not on a large scale. (See Sweden.)

STOCKINGS are made of only one thread, entwined so as to form a species of tissue, extremely elastic, and readily adapting itself to the part it is employed to cover. The tissue cannot be called cloth, for it has neither warp nor woof, but approaches it closely, and for the purposes to which it is applied, is much superior. It is well known that the ancient Romans had no particular covering for the legs (see Breeches); but during the middle ages, hose, or leggins, made of cloth, came into use; and, at a later period, the art of knitting stockings was invented. Very different accounts are given of the time and country of this important invention, some attributing it to the Scots, and others deriving it from Spain. Woven stockings are manufactured by the machine called stocking frame, which is exceedingly ingenious, but too complex to be described without plates. It was invented by William Lee, of Nottinghamshire (England), in 1589. He met with little encouragement in his attempts to set up an establishment in England, but was invited into France by Henry IV, and received with great favor. Henry's assassination soon after interrupted his prospects, and he died in Paris in great poverty. A knowledge of his machine was carried back to England by some of his workmen, who established themselves in Nottinghamshire, which has since continued to be the principal seat of the