TARANTULA (aranea tarentula); a large species of spider, celebrated on account of the popular story that its bite can only be cured by dancing to music till the sufferer is exhausted. Much has been said and written on this subject; but there appears to be no sufficient evidence that the story has any foundation whatever in fact. It is, however, commonly believed in Italy and other countries on the Mediterranean inhabited by this insect. The name seems to have been derived from the city of Tarentum, in Italy. The habits of the animal are similar to those of many other spiders. It constructs a vertical hole in the ground, several inches in depth, and places itself at the entrance for the purpose of leaping upon such insects as may chance to approach. These it drags to the bottom of its habitation, and devours at its leisure. The color is brown, with an ash-colored margin; and the abdomen has a dorsal line of triangular, deeper spots. THEOLOGY (from Oros, God, and Xoyos, word, science) signified, with the Greeks, the dogmas and mythuses relating to the gods and the origin of the world. It was divided into mythological theology (the whole of that which the poets relate of the origin of the world and the nature of the gods); political theology, or the doctrines on these points which the governacknowledged; and physical theology, or the views of philosophers. Those who occupied themselves with inquiries on these subjects, were called theologians. (See Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii, 21; Augustinus, De Civitate Dei, vi, 5; Clement of Alexandria, in the work entitled Stromata, book v.) The Christian meaning of theology must be distinguished from this. Among the early Christians, theology (i. e. Christian theology) signified the doctrine of the divine

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nature of Jesus Christ, or the whole doctrine of the Trinity. (See Athanasius's Second Discourse against the Arians, in his works, vol. i.; Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, i. 1.) Since the eleventh century, theology has been used to denote the doctrine of God and his worship in general; also the whole sum of Christian doctrines. In this latter sense, Abelard (q. v.) wrote a system of theology in the twelfth century. In more modern times, however, Christian theology has been distinguished, still more accurately, from the Christian religion. By the former is meant the scientific knowledge of the history and doctrines of Christianity, necessary to the teacher of religion. It requires, therefore, an acquaintance with the ancient languages, to enable the interpreter of the Bible to decide for himself, by accurate comparison of the original, on the true sense of the Scriptures, and all other knowledge connected with a right understanding of the Bible; therefore a good acquaintance with the history of the Christian church (which affords the most intelligible and convincing proofs of the power, truth and divinity of Christianity, and sheds light upon the gradual formation of particular doctrines); also a philosophic spirit, and an acquaintance with natural theology, to enable the student to understand the relations of revealed religion to the conclusions of reason and experience on subjects of religious faith, and to keep in view the leading idea of Christianity in judging of the doctrines contained in the Holy Scriptures. Such a philological, historical and philosophical acquaintance with the doctrines of Christianity is essential to the religious teacher, that he may accommodate his instructions to the import of the Holy Scriptures, and may be able to defend his

convictions against all attacks. As many men of cultivated minds early became converts to Christianity; as different opinions, on particular points, soon grew up in the different religious communities, and among the teachers of the church; and as Christianity met with many learned opponents, who were to be resisted by the weapons of learning and argument,-a Christian theology was necessarily formed at an early period. What the fathers of the church and the schoolmen of the middle ages had done for this science, was insufficient to satisfy inquirers, after new aids had been afforded to scientific study by the invention of printing, the revival of learning, and the new principles introduced by the reformation. The investigations of the reformers had begun to shed light upon the diversities of their creeds; but the symbolical books which were soon drawn up, checked the Protestant theologians in the application of their principles, and, with the exception of researches into ecclesiastical history, which were favored by the Calvinists in particular, left free play only to polemics. In the love of controversy, in an obstinate adherence to preconceived notions, and in the use of the dialectical method of the schoolmen, the Protestant theologians of the seventeenth century differed little from the Catholic. But about the end of that century, theology received a new character from the efforts of Spener to give practical efficacy to the principles of Christianity, and from the deism of the English philosophers. The tendency of the former was to pietism and the neglect of scientific cultivation; that of the latter to a chilling scepticism. Theology was threatened with danger by both, but this danger was averted by the labors of the German clergy. Resting upon the principle (which gradually became more and more acknowledged) of free inquiry, supported by a love of historical and philosophical truth, and directing their efforts to the points most connected with the improvement of men in wisdom and virtue, the German Protestants, since the middle of the eighteenth century, have done more to give a scientific character and practical utility to theology than had been done in any previous century of the Christian church. On account of the peculiar cultivation of theological science in Germany, we shall now give a view of the mode in which it is treated at present in that country, taken from a small pamphlet published by the theological faculty at Halle, for the use of

students in theology-Anweisung für angehende Theologen (Halle, 1827). The whole range of theological science may be conveniently divided into four partsexegetical, systematical, historical and practical theology.-Exegetical Theology embraces all those branches of knowledge that are acquisite for the correct understanding of the writings of the Old and New Testament, which contain the records of the Christian religion. The following are its principal subdivisions :— 1. The historico-critical introduction to the books of the Old and New Testament. This treats of the history and form of these books, of their age, origin and contents. 2. Biblical hermeneutics, or theory of interpretation. This applies the general principles of interpretation, which are common to all writings, to the biblical writings in particular, and derives also special rules from those circumstances which are peculiar to the biblical books. Closely connected with hermeneutics is biblical criticism, including verbal criticism, which occupies itself with the judgment and restoration of the sacred text; and the (so called) higher criticism, which consists in investigations relative to the authenticity of the several books of Scripture. 3. Biblical exegesis. This is the practical application of the principles of hermeneutics and criticism to the grammatico-historical interpretation of the original text of the Scriptures.

Systematical Theology consists in the methodical and orderly investigation and proof of religious truths and propositions, or those connected with religion; all of which, when collected from the Scriptures, and united into one whole, constitute the system of the Christian religion. All these truths and propositions have reference either to objects of knowledge and belief, or to that which is conformable to duty in our affections and actions. Hence the following distinctions:-1. Dogmatic theology, or system of Christian faith; that is, the systematic exhibition or discussion of that which is taught in the Christian Scriptures in regard to God, his attributes, operations and relations to us. A distinction is made between biblical theology, which derives the system of doctrines exclusively from the Bible, and ecclesiastical theology, or the systematical exhibition of the biblical doctrines according to the creed of the Evangelical church. Both these are usually treated together, and in connexion with critical investigations; but they are sometimes separately discussed. Lectures

upon this science sometimes include the history of Christian doctrines, or attack erroneous views on the spot. This last is called polemic, or elenchtic theology. The history of doctrines, however, together with the general history of the Christian faith, and also polemics, are sometimes treated separately from dogmatic theology. So is apologetic theology, or the defence of Christianity, which, however, is more commonly united with the lectures on dogmatics. 2. Moral theology, or Christian ethics; that is, the systematic exhibition of what is taught in the Scriptures, especially in the New Testament, respecting the duties of mankind in regard to their affections and

actions.

Historical Theology includes all those branches of knowledge which relate to the history of religion, in the widest sense of the term, and of all which stands in connexion with religion, or has originated from it. Historical theology includes, 1. The history of Christian doctrines. In this the student is led to see the gradual formation of the system of doctrines held by the church. An acquaintance with the history of the fathers (patristics) is also recommended. 2. Symbolical theology, or the historico-dogmatical explanation and illustration of creeds and confessions in the Evangelical church, and a comparative exhibition of the systems of other Christian denominations. 3. Archæology, or antiquities, for the illustration of the biblical writings, and the exhibition of the primitive constitution of the Christian church. 4. Theological literature, or bibliography.

Practical Theology occupies itself with the whole circle of studies directly preparatory to the exercise of the office of a Christian teacher. The general method of popular and practical religious instruction is usually taught in connexion with rules for a continued discourse, as in sermons (homiletics), and rules for catechetical instruction. 2. Pastoral theology invites attention to the duties of the pastor, and to that prudence which it becomes him to maintain in all the business of his office. It includes the subject of liturgies and his duties as director of the external worship. 3. Ecclesiastical law includes, generally, all the laws and privileges having reference to religion, and in regard to the, sources of which all Christian denominations are agreed. Specially, it relates to particular ecclesiastical communities. Of the latter, the canon law and the German Protestant

ecclesiastical law are the chief kinds. (See also the note to the article Universities, which gives the list of theological lectures at the university of Berlin.)

TORPEDO; a genus of fishes, belonging to the family of the rays, and formerly united with them under the raja of Linnæus. It is distinguished by the short and somewhat fleshy tail, and the nearly circular disk formed by the body. This is smooth, and the teeth are small and acute. The electrical apparatus, which has rendered the torpedo so celebrated, consists of small membranous tubes, disposed like honey-comb, and divided, by horizontal partitions, into small cells, which are filled with a mucous substance. These occupy the space between the head gills and pectoral fins, and are abundantly supplied with nerves from the eighth pair. This conformation is analogous, in many respects, to the galvanic pile, and, accordingly, the identity of the benumbing power of these animals with electricity may be considered established. A Leyden jar may be charged by one of these animals. This extraordinary structure, which may lead to the determination of important points in general physiology, serves a more humble purpose in the economy of the animal. By exercising this power, the torpedo is enabled to procure its prey, and to protect itself against enemies. Whoever attempts to lay hold of it receives a sudden, paralyzing shock in the arms; and small fishes, it is said, are completely stunned on approaching it. This faculty is by no means confined to the species of torpedo. The gymnotus, or electrical eel (see that article), of the fresh waters of South America, possesses it in a still more extraordinary degree; and it has lately been discovered in a silurus, or catfish, of the African rivers, as well as in several other fishes of different genera. The torpedo, however, is best known, as it has been an object of astonishment and terror with the common people in all ages. According to Cuvier, several species inhabit the European seas, which have been confounded under the raja torpedo of Linnæus. They frequent sandy coasts, and sometimes, it is said, even conceal themselves above low-water mark. According to Mitchill, we have one upon our own coasts, which is sometimes taken on St. George's Bank, in the ocean, near Block island, and to the southward. Few are taken in the course of the season, and these only by the hook and line, while fishing for cod. These instances are,

however, well remembered by the fishermen, who call the animal numb-fish, or cramp-fish. It is said sometimes to attain the weight of a hundred pounds. The liver is cut out for the sake of the oil; but no use is made of the body.

TURNIP (brassica rapa); a cruciferous plant, belonging to the same genus with the cabbage, extensively cultivated for the sake of its esculent root. This latter is turbinate, more or less depressed, but varies somewhat in color, size and form in the subvarieties produced by culture. It is of a fleshy consistence, and has a sweet, somewhat pungent, and agreeable taste. The radical leaves are oblong and lyrate; the upper ones entire: the flowers are usually yellow. The smaller varieties, in general, are most agreeable to the taste, and most esteemed; but the quality depends very much on the nature of the soil, which should be sandy and light. The ordinary season of sowing is from the end of June to the beginning of August; but if it is desired to procure them throughout the season, they may be sown from March till September. Turnips are a wholesome article of food, much in use. The large-rooted varieties have been employed in Europe for fodder, during the winter season, from time immemorial. They are given to cattle to fatten them, and also to sheep, hogs, &c. It has been ascertained that the most advantageous mode of field culture is by drills, which will produce crops of treble the weight of those grown in the broadcast manner. The ruta baga, or Swedish turnip, is a variety of B. campestris, often cultivated. The root is large, of a yellowish color; but, in general, it is less esteemed than the common turnip.

TURNSPIT; an active, industrious variety of the dog, once considered an indispensable attendant on the spit, and still employed in some parts of Europe. It is distinguished by the length of the body, and shortness of the legs; the tail is curled on the back, and the usual color grayish, with black spots.

TURTLE DOVE (columba turtur). This bird is shy and retired, and builds only in deep woods. It makes the forest resound with its plaintive cooings. It is celebrated for its conjugal attachment, and is found in all the temperate parts of the eastern continent. We have, in all parts of the U. States, the Carolina dove, a species analogous in many respects.

UNITARIAN; a name used to designate a class of religionists, who hold to the personal unity of God, in opposition to

the doctrine of the Christian Trinity. The Unitarian faith appears first to have been avowed (after the reformation) by Martin Cellarius, a native of Stuttgard, who was just finishing his studies at Wittenberg, where Luther was professor, when the latter began to set himself in opposition to the authority of the Roman Catholic church. Cellarius adopted Luther's views, and was at first distinguished by his friendship and that of Melanchthon. His subsequent avowal of Unitarian opinions subjected him to an imprisonment, whence being released, he retired, in 1536, to Basle, and died there in 1564. Among other theologians, who, about the same time, were led to a like result, were Lewis Hetzer, put to death by the magistrates of Constance, in 1529; John Denkius, rector of the school of Nuremberg, who was associated with Hetzer in translating the Prophets into German ; John Campanus, of Wittenberg; Adam Pastor, a Westphalian; and Claudius, a Frenchman, who, about 1530, preached his doctrines in Switzerland and Alsace. A person of more note than any of these was Michael Servetus, born, in 1509, at Villanueva, in Arragon, whence he is sometimes called Michael Villanovanus. During his study of the common law, at Toulouse, the news of the spreading reformation engaged him in an examination of the sacred writings; and, in the sequel, he renounced the doctrine of the Trinity. Not venturing then to publish his belief in France, he removed, in 1530, to Basle. In the following year, he published, at Strasburg, his De Trinitatis Erroribus, Libri septem, and soon after, at Haguenau, his Dialogorum de Trinitate, Libri duo. From the storm which these works excited, he retired first to Basle, then to Lyons, and lastly to Paris, where, under his name of Villanovanus, he studied medicine, and became, for a short time, a public lecturer in that department of the university. His great work, Christianismi Restitutio, was published anonymously, in 1553, at Vienna. The same year, he was arrested, at Geneva, on his way into Italy, and condemned to be burned for heresy-a sentence which was carried into effect the following day.-In Italy, a similar movement of opinion had, meanwhile, been taking place. In 1546, the inquisition obtained knowledge of a society of persons of rank and learning at Vicenza, who were accustomed to meet for the consideration of religious questions, and, among other doctrines of the church, had discarded that of the