of the sun's rays has been felt for a long time on the earth, and that, within the polar circle, as far as to the tenth or twelfth degree from the pole, the ice has been thawed and the temperature of the air moderated; hence the wind which blows from those northern regions to the south is milder.-See Meyer's Manual of Physical Astronomy, Theory of the Earth, and Meteorology (German, Göttingen, 1805).

SUMTER, Thomas, a distinguished partisan officer, during the American revolutionary war, died June 1, 1832, at his residence, near the Bradford springs, South Carolina, after a short illness, in the ninety-eighth year of his age. In the commencement of his military career, he was severely tried by adversity, and acquired such circumspection and prudence, that the enterprises which he subsequently conducted were, for the most part, crowned with brilliant success. He gave the first check to the success of the British in South Carolina, after the fall of Charleston, in 1780. The affairs of the state then wore the most gloomy aspect; the citizens were in the deepest despondency, and had abandoned all hope of further resistance, when colonel Sumter, at the head of a small band of followers, who had been forced to retreat, returned to the state, raised again the standard of opposition, and revived and maintained the spirits of the people by a series of gallant achievements. He first routed, July 12, 1780, at Williams's plantation, a marauding detachment of the enemy's army, commanded by captain Huck, a miscreant who had excited universal abhorrence by his cruelty and profanity. In the same month, he made attacks on the posts of Rocky mount and Hanging rock, the first of which was completely successful, as would have been the second, also, could he have restrained the insubordination of his troops, and destroyed their avidity for plunder and liquor. He destroyed, however, the prince of Wales's regiment. Soon after, he captured a convoy of stores passing from Ninety-Six to Cainden; but, unfortunately, encamping within striking distance of the enemy, he was surprised by Tarleton, and routed, with the loss of many men and all the prisoners and stores that had recently fallen into his hands. He was next attacked near Broad river by Wemyss, who was repulsed, and he himself wounded and taken. Major Garden, in his Anecdotes of the Revolution, states, that lord Cornwallis wrote,

immediately after this, to Tarleton, “I shall be glad to hear that Sumter is in no condition to give us further trouble; he certainly has been our greatest plague in this country." He was accordingly attacked by Tarleton, in his strong position on Blackstock hill, with the usual impetuosity of that officer, who, however, was compelled to retreat, with a severe loss, leaving his wounded to the mercy of the victor. In this action, Sumter received a severe wound, which, for a considerable time, arrested his career; but he was no sooner able to take the field, than he again appeared as an active partisan, breaking up the British posts in the lower country. About this period, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. On one occasion, lieutenant-colonel Hampton, commar ling under him, dispersed a large body of tories, near Dorchester. Placed at the head of the light troops, botlı regulars and militia, Sumter next compelled lieutenant-colonel Coats to destroy his stores, at Monk's corner, and abandon his position. Important services__ were again performed by Sumter at Eutaw, after which, the enemy, retiring within their lines, seldom ventured beyond the gates of Charleston. General Sumter was for a long time a member of the American congress, first as a representative, and then a senator, and enjoyed the highest respect. He is thus described in Lee's Memoirs :-" Sumter was younger than Marion, who was about forty-eight years of age, larger in frame, better fitted, in strength of body, to the toils of war, and, like his compeer, devoted to the freedom of his country. His aspect was manly and stern, denoting insuperable firmness and lofty courage. Determined to deserve success, he risked his own life and the lives of his associates without reserve."

SUN. This magnificent luminary, the great source of light, heat, and life, appears to us a circular and resplendent disk; from which appearance, and the observation of the solar spots (described below), it follows that this body has a form nearly spherical, and turns round its axis once in about twenty-five and a half days, because a sphere only can appear to the eye like a circular disk in all positions. The true relation of the sun, not only to our earth, but to all the planets of our system, has been known since the discoveries of Kepler. The primary planets, accompanied by their moons, revolve about the sun in elliptical orbits, which have but little eccentricity the sun itself

being situated in a focus common to all these ellipses. His mean distance from the earth, which has been finally determined, with tolerable accuracy, by the observation of his parallax (see the subsequent part of this article), amounts, in round numbers, to about 95,000,000 miles: the sun, therefore, is above 400 times farther distant from us than the moon; and a cannon ball which moves 600 feet in each second, would require about 26 years to reach it. The apparent diameter of the sun is pretty nearly the same as that of the moon: it is somewhat above half a degree; yet, according to the various points of the earth's orbit, from which we observe the same, varies somewhat-a necessary consequence of the elliptical form of this orbit. The conclusions which we draw from the differences in the apparent magnitude of the sun as to the different distances of this body from the earth, agree perfectly with what we learn, respecting the same subject, from other sources; so that this point may be considered as well settled. The mass of the sun, which exceeds that of all the planets together 800 times, is, in proportion to that of our earth, according to Piazzi, as 329,630 to 1; the diameter exceeds that of the earth 112 times, the surface 12,700 times, the solid contents 1,435,000 times. The earth appears, as Biot says, by this statement, a mere grain of sand, compared to the sun, which, again, in his turn, is but a point in infinite space. Respecting the physical structure of the sun, astronomers have entertained different opinions, from times immemorial. The hypothesis of Herschel is, that the sun is an opaque body, having on its surface mountains and valleys, like the earth, the whole surrounded by an atmosphere constantly filled with luminous clouds. These sometimes open in particular places, and allow the body of the sun to be seen; hence the appearance of solar spots. This hypothesis seems to be preferable to that of Laplace (who imagines the sun to be a burning body), because it allows us to conceive that the sun is inhabited, which better agrees with the wise use made of space by a beneficent Omnipotence.

Parallax of the Sun.-Parallax and horizontal parallax have been explained in the article Parallax. The horizontal parallax of the sun has been known with greater accuracy since the transit of Venus over the sun's disk in 1761 and 1769. As the orbit of the earth includes that of Venus, the latter must sometimes appear between us and the sun. The duration

of such a transit for the centre of the earth may be calculated; and on comparing this with the duration actually observed on the surface of the earth, the difference of the two results enables us to deduce the horizontal parallax of the sun, and hence the distance of the two luminaries from each other. In this way the mean horizontal parallax of the sun has been estimated by Duréjour at 8′ 8′′, and by Biot at 8' 7", which makes the mean distance of the sun from the earth amount to 23,439 times the radius of the earth (which is about 4000 miles in length), or, in round numbers, 94,000,000 miles. If this horizontal parallax is taken but one tenth of a second smaller, we must add to this distance an amount equal to 215 times the radius of the earth, which explains the difference in the statements of the distance. This distance having been ascertained with tolerable accuracy, we possess the measure of our whole planetary system, as, according to the second law of Kepler (q. v.), the cubes of the mean distances of the planets from the sun are as the squares of the periods of their revolutions (which have long been known). Therefore the determining of this distance is of the highest importance. Respecting the transit of Venus, see Lalande's Astronomie, Enke's Distance of the Sun from the Earth, by the Transit of Venus in 1761, and the Transit of Venus in 1769 (in German). (See Transit.)

Spots on the Sun.-Spots of irregular form are often observed in the disk of the sun (q. v.), in greater or less number. They appear in the centre dark, and towards the margin have a whitish-gray umbra, which, however, is often observed spreading over large surfaces, without that black centre. They originate and disappear, sometimes quickly, and without apparent cause, in the middle of the disk; but more frequently are observed to rise on the eastern margin, and move towards the western, where, thirteen days after being first seen, they disappear, and again appear on the eastern margin after a little longer period. The spots appear to revolve round the sun in about twentyseven days. At particular seasons, they move over the sun in straight lines; at all other times, in lines more or less curved; and the paths described by different spots observed at the same time are always parallel to each other, and always have their curvature and position determined by the season. They appear broadest when near the middle point of their passage. All this is satisfactorily explained, if the

spots are considered to adhere to the sun, and the latter is considered to turn according to the order of the signs round its axis, which is inclined at an angle of 824° to the ecliptic of the earth. The real duration of this rotation, as deduced from the apparent rotation of twentyseven days, is equal to twenty-five days. This difference is occasioned by the fact that the earth, from which this rotation is observed, is itself moving in the mean time. Herschel's opinion on the nature of these spots we have mentioned in the previous part of this article. SUN-DIAL. (See Dial.)

SUNDA ISLANDS; a group of islands lying to the south of Farther India. The principal islands of the group are Sumatra, Borneo and Java. (See the articles.) The straits of Sunda lie between Sumatra and Java.

SUNDAY; the first day in the week, which has its name from the sun, as this day was already called dies solis with the Romans. It is celebrated by Christians in commemoration of Christ's having risen on the first day of the week. It was also on the first day of the week that the Holy Ghost was poured out upon the disciples. We have given a history of the Christian Sunday under the article Sabbath, and shall here only refer the reader, for more information on some points, to Hallam's Constitutional History of England (ch. vii. viii.). In the church services of Europe, the Sundays are named from the feasts which precede them, or from the collects or passages of Scripture with which the religious service was formerly commenced on the several Sundays :1. Sunday after New Year, so called when new year begins on one of the four last days of the week. 2. Sundays after Epiphany, which vary from one to six, according to the time of Easter. 3. Septuagesima (q. v.), Sexagesima, and Esto mihi (in the English church, quinquagesima (q. v.) Sunday). The third has its Latin name from the beginning of the lesson of the day (Psalm lxxi, 3). 4. Sundays in Lent. (q. v.) Their names are taken from the words with which the lessons of the day begin: Invocavit (Psalm xci, 15); Reminiscere (Psalm xxv, 6); Oculi (Psalm xxv, 15); Lætare (Isaiah Lxvi, 10); Judica (Psalm xliii, 1); Palmarum, Palm Sunday. (q. v.) 5. Sundays after Easter, six in number, which almost all have names of rejoicing: Quasimodogeniti (1 Peter ii, 2), or Whitsunday (see Pentecost); Misericordias Domini (Psalm xxiii, 6, or Psalm lxxxix, 2); Jubilate (Psalm lxvi, 1); Cantate (Psalm xcvi, 1);

Rogate (Matt. vii, 7); Eraudi (Psalm xxvii, 7). 6. Sundays after Trinity. The feast of Trinity was established in 1150. The greatest number of these Sundays is twenty-seven: the number depends upon the time of Easter. The later Easter falls, the more Epiphany Sundays and the fewer Trinity Sundays are there. 7. Sundays in Advent. (See Advent.) 8. Sunday after Christmas, so called when this festival falls upon one of the first four days of the week, reckoned from Monday. (See Festivals.) In the English church, the sixth Sunday after Easter is called Sunday after Ascension, and the seventh Whitsunday.

SUNDAY Letter. (See Dominical Letter.)

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. The founder of the modern Sunday schools was Mr. Raikes (q. v.), editor of the Gloucester (England) Journal. Struck with the wretched appearance of a number of children whom he saw playing in the street in the suburbs, he was informed by an inhabitant to whom he addressed himself, that on Sundays, when they were released from work, and the few who enjoyed the benefit of any instruction during the week, were let loose from school, they presented a more afflicting sight of misery and vice. This observation immediately suggested to him the idea that the profanation of the day might be prevented by putting them to school; and he engaged several women, who kept schools in the neighborhood, to receive such children as he should send to them on Sundays, and instruct them in reading and the catechism, paying each of them a shilling for their day's work. He soon collected a considerable number of children, distributed books among them, gave them advice, settled their quarrels; and the effects of his benevolent exertions were so striking, that his example was followed by other charitable persons in different quarters of the city; and in a few years Sunday schools were established in almost every part of England. Mr. Raikes made his first experiment in 1781, and, in 1786, it was estimated that 250,000 children were receiving instruction in Sunday schools. (See a letter of Mr. Raikes, giving an account of his proceedings, in the Gentleman's Magazine, vol. liv, p. 410, 1784.) A Sunday school society was formed in 1785 for the encouragement of Sunday schools by pecuniary aid, &c., the schools having been at first taught by hired teachers. Gratuitous instruction was a great improvement in the system, and appears to have become gen

eral about 1800. In 1803, the first Sunday school union was formed in London, and the example was soon imitated in many large towns and some of the counties. In 1826, the number of Sunday schools in England under the care of the established church was about 8000, with 550,450 pupils: the number of those established by dissenters is also very great. The Scotch Sabbath evening schools (first established in Edinburgh in 1787) arose from the English Sunday schools, but are modified by the circumstance that, as nearly all the children in that country are taught to read in the parochial schools, the Sabbath evening schools are more entirely devoted to direct religious instruction than the Sunday schools. In this country, the first Sunday schools were opened at New York, in 1816; and they have since multiplied rapidly, and overspread the whole country.

SUNDERBUNDS; an extensive, woody, inhospitable district of Hindoostan, intersected by the mouths of the Ganges, in the south part of the country of Bengal. This district is about 10,000 square miles in extent, and is intersected by innumerable rivers and creeks, all of which are salt; and through the whole tract nothing but brackish water is found; and it is generally uninhabited, except by tigers and deer. The navigation by boats through the Sunderbunds is very romantic, and boats coming down to Calcutta in the hot season are obliged to take this route. The trees are all of small size, not useful for timber, but very valuable in affording a supply of fuel for Calcutta and other towns on the river.

SUNDERLAND; a market-town and seaport of England, county of Durham, near the mouth of the Wear. Here the malignant cholera made its first appearance in England in 1831. With Monk Wearmouth and Bishop Wearmouth, it forms one connected town. The High street is spacious, and tolerably handsome, especially the central part, which rises with a considerable ascent. Some of the other streets are narrow and dirty; but of late years the general appearance of the town has been improved. Of its public buildings, the church, a chapel of ease, a Methodist chapel, and meeting houses for the Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Quakers, and Unitarians, the exchange, &c., are the principal. The harbor is formed by two piers, on the south and north sides of the river. The iron bridge consists of an arch of iron frame-work, thrown over the river, 237 feet span, and rising 100 feet above the

level of the water; so that ships of 400 tons can sail under it, by striking their top-gallant masts. The trade of Sunderland has been long on the increase. Coal is the staple article of export, employing 600 craft. The manufactures are chiefly of flint and bottle glass, earthen ware, copperas. Coal is the staple article of export. Ship-building is carried on to a great extent. By the reform bill it returns, with the Wearmouths, two members to parliament. Population of the whole town in 1821,33,911. 267 miles north from London.

SUN-DEW (drosera). These delicate plants are found in marshes and moist places. They attract attention chiefly from their leaves, which are all radical, and fringed with hairs, each of which supports a globule of pellucid, dew-like liquor, even in the hottest weather. The flowers are small, and mostly white; but in one North American species, they are conspicuous, and of a fine purple color. These plants are remarkable for having the unexpanded leaves rolled up in the same manner as the ferns-a disposition almost unique among phænogamous plants. The most common species, D. rotundifolia, is an acrid, caustic plant, which curdles milk, removes warts and corns, and takes away freckles and sunburn: distilled with wine, it produces a very stimulating spirit; and it was formerly much used as a tincture, spiced and sweetened.

Its

SUN-FISH (Orthagoriscus); a cartilaginous fish of a very singular form: the body is compressed, broad, abruptly truncated, resembling, in fact, the head of a large fish separated from the body: the mouth and eyes are very small. nearly circular form, and the silvery whiteness of the sides, together with their brilliant phosphorescence during the night, have obtained for it very generally the appellations of sun or moon-fish. While swimming, it turns upon itself like a wheel. It grows to an immense size, often attaining the diameter of four feet, and sometimes even that of twelve, and weighing from three to five hundred pounds. It is very fat, and yields a great quantity of oil; but the flesh is ill tasted, and exhales a disagreeable odor. is found in all seas, from the arctic to the antarctic circle. Two or three species are known. In the U. States, the sanie name is often applied to a fish of the perch family (pomotis), of a compressed and elevated form, very common in most of our lakes and rivers. The genus pomotis is peculiar to North America, and several species are now known.

It

SUN-FLOWER (helianthus); a genus of

plants, so called from the ideal resemblance of the yellow flowers to the sun with his golden rays. The root is mostly perennial; the stem herbaceous, upright, and often very tall; the leaves opposite or alternate, undivided, often rigid and scabrous; the flowers large and terminal, usually disposed in a corymb. It belongs to the composita. The species are numerous, and mostly inhabit North America. The gigantic sun-flower (H. annuus), so common in our gardens, is a native of Peru. The root is annual; the stem thick, cylindrical, rough, from six to fifteen feet in height; the leaves alternate, petiolate, large, and somewhat heartshaped; the flowers, sometimes a foot in diameter, are so inclined as to take nearly a vertical position, and usually are turned towards the south; they have the disk very large, and the rays short in proportion. The seeds form excellent nourishment for poultry and for cage birds; and an edible oil has also been expressed from them.-H. tuberosus is a native of Brazil, and has been extensively cultivated in Europe for the sake of its tuberous roots, which are used as a substitute for the potato. It is often called Jerusalem artichoke, the first term being a corruption of the Italian word girasole; and the latter has been applied to it from the resemblance in the flavor of the roots to that of the common artichoke. These roots are eaten cooked in various manners, but are not so generally liked as potatoes; neither are they so nourishing or wholesome: they are, however, excellent for sheep and other domestic animals during the winter season. The plant flourishes in every soil, requiring little attention; but in a good soil the roots are larger and of a better quality. When once planted, they may be left for years upon the same ground, as there are always enough roots remaining for reproduction, after the removal of all that are wanted for the purposes of aliment. The season in which they are dug up for use is from about the middle of September to November. So extremely productive is this valuable plant, that between seventy and eighty tons of the roots are said to have been obtained in one season from a single acre of ground. This plant grows to the height of eight or nine feet: the flowers are much smaller than those of the preceding.

SUNNA; with the ancient northern tribes, the goddess of the sun. Her brother was Mani, god of the moon.* In *In German, the sun (Sonne) is feminine, and the moon (Mond) masculine. VOL. XII. 6

honor of her, a boar was fattened through the year; and at the beginning of February, it was sacrificed, with many ceremonies. Eight days before January, the boar was carried to the ruler of the country, and on its back the principal men took the oath of fidelity and allegiance. The image of Sunna was a half-naked woman, standing upon a column, with rays round her head. Before her breast she held a radiant wheel with out-stretched arms.

SUNNA, in the Mohammedan religion. (See Sunnites.)

SUNNITES; those Mohammedans who receive the Sunna (i.e. a collection of traditions relating to Mohammedanism) as of equal importance with the Koran. There are several diversities in the copies of the Sunna. Those of the Persians, Arabians and Africans are entirely opposed to each other; hence the various sects. The adherents of Ali, who reject the Sunna, and regard Ali as Mohammed's successor in the dignity of high-priest (for instance, the Persians), are called by the Sunnites (the Ottoman Turks) Shiites (i. e. heretics).

SUOVETAURILIA; a Roman sacrifice, usually offered after the census of the people had been taken. It consisted of a hog (sus), a sheep (ovis), and a steer (taurus); hence the name. All these animals were males.

SUPERIOR; the largest lake in North America, and the largest body of fresh water that has been discovered in any part of the globe. Its length is differently estimated by travellers and geographers: some make it 490 or 500 miles long, and 1700 in circumference; others, 350 miles long, and 1500 miles in circumference. Its widest part is said to be 190 miles. This is the most western of the great chain of lakes, which discharge their waters by the St. Lawrence. Its surface is 641 feet above the Atlantic. It is 900 feet deep. Its waters are very pure and transparent; and it abounds with trout, white fish and sturgeon. The names of these fish are likely to convey diminutive ideas both as to numbers and quantity; but we must think of trout quite equal in size to the cod of the Newfoundland banks, and of white fish and sturgeon comparatively large. The average weight of the trout exceeds twelve pounds, and many weigh forty, and some even fifty pounds. These fish exist in such numbers, that there can be no doubt that they will supply the whole country in the north-west section of the U. States,