8vo. ; a Treatise on Algebra, 2 vols. 8vo.; and various articles in the early part of the last edition of doctor Rees's Cyclopædia. He died at Woolwich, May 15, 1821. BONPLAND, Aimé, educated at the medical school and the botanical garden in Paris, accompanied Alexander von Humboldt to America in 1799, and discovered above 6000 new species of plants. After his return, he was made, in 1804, superintendent of the garden at Malmaison, which he has described (Paris, 18131817, 11 numbers, folio, with copperplates). He was also co-editor of the Travels and Voyages in the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent, from 1799 to 1804, by Alex. Humboldt and A. Bonpland; published in French in Paris, and in German, by Cotta, in Tübingen (1818). In 1818, he went, as professor of natural history, to Buenos Ayres. There, Oct. 1, 1820, he undertook a journey along the Parana, to explore the interior of Paraguay. At Santa Ana, however, on the eastern bank of the Parana, where he had laid out plantations of tea, and had founded a colony of Indians, he was surprised, on the territory of Buenos Ayres, by 800 soldiers of doctor Francia, dictator of Paraguay, who destroyed his plantations, and carried him off prisoner, together with most of the Indians. Francia sent him, as physician, to the garrison of a fort, and employed him in laying out a commercial road. B. lived till within a few years in Santa Maria. There is no other reason for his captivity, than his success in planting the Paraguay tea. Alex. Humboldt wrote to doctor Francia to persuade him to liberate his friend, and he was supported in his request by the English minister Canning, and the British consul in Buenos Ayres, Mr. Parish, but without success. A late French mission to South America has in view his liberation. From the manuscripts of B., Kunth arranged the large work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, which B. and Alex. Humboldt had collected and described on their travels in the tropical countries of the new world. (Paris, 1815-1825, 7 vols., fol., with copperplates, in 35 numbers, 1240 francs.)

BONSTETTEN, Charles von; born at Berne, 1745, of an ancient and noble family, in the canton of Zürich. His father, Charles Emanuel, was treasurer of Berne. He was educated, till his 19th year, at Yverdun, then in Geneva, where he improved himself in the society of Bonnet, Stanhope, Voltaire, Saussure and other learned men. He studied at Ley

den, afterwards with Gray at Cambridge, then at Paris, and travelled in Italy. In 1775, he became a member of the supreme council at Berne, and, in 1787, landvoigt in Nyon. Here Matthisson, Salis and Frederica Brun lived with him; here John Müller wrote on the history of his native country. By his endeavors to improve education, and other useful efforts, he promoted the welfare of his native country. During the revolutionary times, he lived with his friend Frederica Brun, in Copenhagen. On his return, in 1802, he chose Geneva for his residence. The results of a journey to Italy, in which he had made interesting investigations on the depopulation of the campagna at Rome by the mal' aria, appeared under the title Voyage sur la Scène du dernier Livre de l'Eneide, suivi de quelques Observations sur le Latium Moderne (Geneva, 1813). In 1807, appeared his Recherches sur la Nature et les Lois de l'Imagination, 2 vols. He afterwards published Pensées Diverses sur divers Objets du Bien Public (Geneva, 1815); Etudes ou Recherches sur les Facultés de Sentir et de Penser (1821. 2 vols.); and L'Homme du Midi et du Vord (Geneva, 1824). These works indicate a philosophical spirit of observation.

BONZANIGA, Giuseppe; royal sculptor at Turin. By a persevering application of 40 years, he raised the art of carving in wood and ivory to a high degree of perfection, and founded an establishment, from which numerous works of art have been produced, that are much sought for in all Italy, and valued by connoisseurs. He died Dec. 18, 1820.

BONZES; the name given by Europeans to the priests of the religion of Fo, in Eastern Asia, particularly in China, Birmah, Tonquin, Cochin-China and Japan. As these priests live together in monasteries, unmarried, they have much resemblance to the monks of the Christian church: the system of their hierarchy and of their worship also agrees, in many respects, with that of the Catholics. They do penance, and pray for the sins of the laity, who secure them from want by endowments and alms. The female bonzes may be compared to the Christian nuns; as the religion of Fo suffers no priestesses, but admits the social union of pious virgins and widows, under monastic vows, for the performance of religious exercises. The bonzes are commonly acquainted only with the external forms of worship and the idols, without understanding the meaning of their religious symbols. They endeavor to keep up the

ed.

superstition by which they are supportBOOK-KEEPING is a mercantile term, used to denote the method of keeping commercial accounts, of all kinds, in such a manner, that a man may thereby know, at any time, the true state of his affairs, with clearness and expedition. Bookkeeping rests, like commerce in general, on the notions of debtor and creditor, or on the notions of that which we possess or are to receive, and that which we are to pay, and is divided into single, and double or Italian book-keeping. In the first, the posts of debtor and creditor are separated from each other, and entered in such a way, that each one appears singly; while, in the latter, creditor and debtor are in continual mutual connexion, to which end all the posts are entered doubly, once on the debtor and once on the creditor side, by which every error or mistake is prevented. This mode of double book-keeping sprung up in Italy, in the 15th century; yet it had been practised already in Spain in the 14th century, according to a legal ordinance. The principle of this system is, that all money and articles received become debtors to him from whom they are received, and, on the other hand, all those who receive money or goods from us become debtors to cash or to the goods. The books which the merchant wants are principally a waste-book, in which all his dealings are recorded without particular order; a journal, in which the contents of the waste-book are separated every month, and entered on the debtor and creditor sides; and a leger, in which the posts entered in the journal are placed under particular accounts, and from which, every year, the balance is drawn.

BOOK-TRADE, BOOKSELLERS. Before the invention of typography, those who copied books carried on the trade in them. In Greece, in Alexandria, and in Rome, there were booksellers who kept a number of transcribers. In the middle ages, there were booksellers, called stationarii, at the universities of Bologna and Paris, who loaned single manuscripts at high prices. In Paris, after 1342, no one could deal in books without the permission of the university, who had particular officers to examine the manuscripts and fix the price. After the invention of printing, the printers were also the booksellers. Faustus, the first bookseller, carried his printed Bibles for sale to France. Those who had formerly been employed in copying now acted as agents of the

printers, and carried the printed copies into the monasteries for sale. Towards the end of the 15th century, there were such book traders in Ulm, Nordlingen and Augsburg. The first bookseller who purchased manuscripts from the authors, and had them printed by others, without possessing a press of his own, was John Otto, in Nuremburg (1516). In Leipsic, there were, for the first time, in 1545, two booksellers of this kind-Steiger and Boskopf. The books were carried to Frankfort on the Maine to the fair. The bookfair at Leipsic did not become important until a later period: in 1667, it was attended by 19 foreign booksellers. The Leipsic catalogue of books appeared as early as 1600. The booksellers of the present day may be divided into printers who sell their own publications (they have become rare), booksellers who sell the books which have been printed at their expense by others, and those who keep for sale the publications of others. The last have, usually, at the same time, publications of their own, which they sell or exchange with others. This trade is promoted, in Germany, chiefly by the book-fairs at Leipsic, of which the Easter fair is frequented by all the booksellers of Germany, and by those of some of the neighboring countries, as of France, Switzerland, Denmark, Livonia, in order to settle their mutual accounts, and to form new connexions. The German publisher sends his publications to the keeper of assortments, à condition, that is, on commission for a certain time, after which the latter pays for what have been sold, and can return what have not been sold. This is not so favorable for the publisher as the custom in the French book-trade, where the keeper of assortments takes the quantity he wants at a fixed rate. In the German book-trade, it is the practice for almost every house, either in the country or abroad, which publishes or sells German books, to have its agent at Leipsic, who receives and distributes its publications. A., in Riga, who publishes a book calculated for the German trade, has his agent, B., in Leipsic, to whom he sends, free of expense, a number of copies of his publication, that he may distribute the new work to all the booksellers with whom he is connected, from Vienna to Hamburg, and from Strasburg to Königsberg, each of whom has his agent in Leipsic. Instructions are also given as to the number of copies to be sent to each. B. delivers those copies in Leipsic to the agents, who send them

every week, or more or less frequently, by the post, or by carriers, at the expense of the receiver. C., in Strasburg, who finds that he has not received copies enough, writes for an additional number of copies to his agent, D., in Leipsic. D. gives this order to B., who delivers the number wanted to D., to be transmitted to C. This arrangement is advantageous to the German book-trade as well as to Leipsic. The dealer receives every thing free to Leipsic, and, as a great number of packets, with books from all parts of Germany, arrive there for him every week, he can have them packed together and sent at once. The freight is thus much less than if the packets were sent to him separately from the different places, and the whole business is simplified. The booksellers are also enabled to agree with greater ease on a certain discount per cent. In other European countries, for instance, in England and France, no such connexion of the booksellers has yet been formed. Paris is the central place of the French book-trade. In Great Britain, Edinburgh rivals London. In the Netherlands, the most important repositories of books are at Amsterdam, Utrecht, Ley-. den and Haerlem. In Brussels and Liege, many French works are reprinted. In Germany, several houses rarely unite for the publication of great works, as is done in France and England. In 1802, the booksellers of the U. States established a fair at New York, and rules for its regulation. In Spain and Portugal, the price of every book is regulated by the government.

BOOKS, CATALOGUES OF. Catalogues of books are interesting if the libraries they describe contain a great number of works (Bibliotheca Thottiana, Copenhagen, 1789 -95,7 parts, in 12 vols.; Bibliotheca Firmiana, Milan, 1783, 6 vols.; Catalogue du Duc de la Vallière, Paris, 1783-88, 9 vols.), or are distinguished by well-selected, by rare and costly works (Cat. Bibl. Harleiana, by Michael Maittaire, London, 1743-45, 5 vols.), or by scarce books merely (Catalogue of Sam. Engel, Bern, 1743, and Dan. Salthen, Königsberg, 1751), by old editions (J. F. Dibdin, Biblioth. Spenceriana, London, 1814, 4 vols.; Ferd. Fossii, Cat. Codd. Sec. 15 Impressor. Bibl. Magliabecchiana, Florence, 1793, 3 vols. fol.), by beautiful copies, particularly on parchment (Cat. de la Bibl. de McCarthy, Paris, 1815, 2 vols.), or by being very rich in some particular department. For natural history, the most important catalogues are those of sir Jos. Banks (London, 1796, 5 vols.), and of

Cobres (Augsburg, 1782, 2 vols.); for Hungarian history, that of count Szecheny (Sopronii, 1799 et seq.); for classical literature, those of count Rewiczky (Berlin, 1794), and of Askew (London, 1775), with some others; for French literature, the second part of the catalogue of Vallière; for Italian literature, the catalogues of Capponi (Rome, 1747, 4 vols.), Floncel (Paris, 1774, 2 vols.), and Ginguené (Paris, 1817); for the German language, that of Adelung (Dresden, 1807). Catalogues acquire their true value and utility by judicious arrangement and accuracy of detail. For this purpose, besides perfect exactness in the material statements which must prevail throughout, and especially with regard to uncommon works, a notice of the printer, number of pages, signatures, catchwords, &c., and, in engravings, an account of the number and quality of the impressions, and the artist's name, are necessary. Above all, a clear arrangement of the books is requisite, that they may be easily consulted. In this department, the French took the lead. Gabriel Naudé opened the way by the Catalogus Bibliotheca Cordesiana (Paris, 1643, 4 vols.): he was followed by Ishmael Bullialdus and Jos. Quesnel, in the Cat. Bib. Thuana (Paris, 1679). Gabriel Martin, a bookseller at Paris, distinguished himself, in the 18th century, by a further attention to the method of arrangement, and, at the same time, by bibliographical accuracy, (Catalogues of Bulteau, 1711, du Fay, 1725, Brochard, 1729, count Hoym, 1738). On the foundation laid by Martin, Debure built, in the catalogue of Gaignat, 1769; and, in the preparation of the first part of Vallière's catalogue, as well as in the arrangement of the second part, the bookseller Nyon followed him with success. About this time, Jac. Morelli, in Venice, published a catalogue of the excellent library of Maffeo Pinelli (Venice, 1787, 6 vols.), distinguished by similar merits. All these catalogues, however, were prepared only to facilitate the sale of the books enumerated, and aspired to nothing higher. The earlier catalogues of the Bodleian (Oxford, 1738, 2 vols. fol.) and Parisian libraries (1739, 6 vols. fol.) are very defective. John Michael Francke, in his catalogue of the library of Bunau (Leipsic, 1750, 7 vols. 4to.), and Audiffredi, in the alphabetical catalogue of the library of Casanati (Rome, 1761, 4 vols. fol.), have distinguished themselves as scientific bibliothecarians. Both works, though incomplete, are excellent models, Catalogus Biblioth. Aca

demia Theresiana, by Joseph de Sartori (Vienna, 1801, 13 vols. 4to.), is full of errors and defects, and is by no means to be compared to the former of the abovementioned works. There are, lastly, critical catalogues (cat. raisonnés) which contain more minute information and opinions, descriptions of uncommon and remarkable books, and sometimes accounts of their prices. Besides the few generally interesting works of this nature by John Fabricius (Wolfenb., 1717, 6 vols. 4to.), Jac. Fred. Reimmann (Hildesh., 1731, 2 vols.), Gotlieb Stolle (Jena, 1733, 18 vols. 4to.), and others, the catalogues of Crevenna (Amsterdam, 1778, 6 vols. 4to.), Serna Santander (Brussels, 1803, 5 vols.), and lord Spencer (see above), and Denis's Memorabilia of the Library of Garelli (Vienna, 1780, 4to.) are very valuable. BOOKS, CENSORSHIP OF. Unless we consider the burning of condemned books under the Roman emperors as a censorship, the establishment of this institution must be attributed to the popes; but it cannot be denied, that it would have sprung up in a thousand other places, even if it had not existed in their dominions. Soon after the invention of printing, the popes perceived the influence which this art exerted over the diffusion of knowledge. It was, besides, doubly dangerous at a time when the authority of the church had been assailed, and was shaking under the load of its abuses. They endeavored, therefore, to prohibit first the reading, and secondly the printing, of certain literary works. They enforced the ancient decrees of the church against the reading of heretical books, and introduced an ecclesiastical superintendency of the press in 1479 and 1496, which was more completely established by a bull of Leo X, in 1515. In this, the bishops and inquisitors were required to examine all works before they were printed, and thus to prevent the publication of heretical opinions. They went still further: as this papal decree could not be carried into execution in all countries, on account of the reformation, they prepared an index of books which nobody was allowed to read under penalty of the censure of the church. This index was commenced by the council of Trent, in the fourth session of which (1546), the decree of the censorship was renewed; but it was not executed, and was finally left to the popes (25th session of 1563), by whom several such Indices Librorum prohibitorum have been published. Even in recent times, in 1758, such an augmented

index was issued. Works of an established character, which could not well be prohibited, it was determined to expurgate. The duke of Alva caused such an Index expurgatorius to be prepared in the Netherlands; another was drawn up at Rome, in 1607, which, however, with the exception of some fragments, has remained secret. This censorship was soon afterwards adopted by the secular authority, and, in some respects, extended still further. In Germany, the politico-theological controversies gave the first occasion for the introduction of this institution, as they were carried on with the greatest violence on both sides. The decree of the German diet, in 1524, prohibited them. By the diet of 1530, a more severe superintendence of the press was established; and this was confirmed by later laws of the empire, in 1541, 1548, 1567, and 1577, &c. It was also provided, at the peace of Westphalia, 1648 (Osnabr. Instr., chapter v, § 50), that the states should not suffer attacks on religious parties: From that time, the emperors have promised, in their elective capitulations, to watch strictly over the fulfilment of this article. In the capitulations of the emperor Leopold II, 1790, and of the emperor Francis II, it was further added (art. vi, § 8), "that no work should be printed, which could not be reconciled with the symbolical books of both Catholics and Protestants, and with good morals, or which might produce the ruin of the existing constitution, or the disturbance of public peace. It was, however, not difficult, in most Protestant countries, for individual authors or literary journals to obtain an exemption from the censorship; and many institutions, academies, universities, &c., were privileged in this way, as far as concerned their regular professors. The governments sometimes protected their subjects with great energy; as, for instance, that of Hanover, in the case of Putter and Schloezer. France, the censorship belonged to the department of the chancellor, and was administered by royal censors. It was first abolished in England. It was formerly exercised by the well-known star-chamber, and, after the abolition of this court, in 1641, by the parliament. In 1662, it was regulated by a particular statute, but only for a certain number of years. This statute was renewed in 1679, and again, in 1692, for two years more. In 1694, the right of the crown to render the printing of writings, journals, &c. dependent on its permission, that is, the

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