He afterwards became a Benedictine monk, and devoted himself, with the greatest zeal, to the study of philosophy and mathematics, as well as to music and poetry. He fled twice from the monastery, and took shelter in Zürich. In 1810, he was made professor in Kazan, in Russia, whence he returned in 1817. His poems, in particular his piscatory idyls, are interesting for their truth and simplicity, and the refined feeling of moral and natural beauty which pervades thein. He wrote his own life, in 3 vols. BRONZE. For the mode in which this metal is prepared, see Copper.

BRONZES, in archæology; works of art cast in bronze. The ancients used bronze for a great variety of purposes: arms and other instruments, medals and statues, of this metal, are to be found in all cabinets of antiquities. Egyptian idols of bronze are contained in the British museum. The most celebrated antique bronze statues are, the sleeping satyr; the two youthful athletes; the colossal equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome; the Hercules of the capitol; the colossal head of Commodus; the statue of Septimius Severus in the Barberini palace. The horses of St. Mark, at Venice, are of pure copper. On tables of bronze were inscribed laws, edicts, and treaties. 3000 of these were destroyed by fire in the time of Vespasian. Bass-reliefs, vaults, and doors of public edifices, were ornamented with decorations of the same metal. Urban VIII took from the Pantheon alone 450,000 pounds of bronze, which he used for the ornaments of St. Peter's, and for the cannon of the castle of St. Angelo. One of these was composed wholly of bronze nails, taken from the portico, and bore the inscription, Ex clavis trabalibus porticus Agrippa. The ancients considered this metal as naturally pure; all their instruments of sacrifice, and sacred vessels, were therefore of bronze. They also believed it endowed with the power of driving away spectres and malignant spirits. (Ov. Met. vii. 226, and Fast. v. 441.) The words moneta sacra are found only on bronze medals. It was sacred to the gods; and the Roman emperors, who struck gold and silver coins, could not strike them of bronze without the permission of the senate; hence the inscription S. C. (Senatus consulto). (For the method of casting in bronze among the ancients, see Winckelmann's History of Art, book ii.) The moderns have also made much use of bronze, particularly for statues exposed to accidents, or the

influence of the atmosphere, and for casts of celebrated antiques. The moulds are made on the pattern, of plaster and brick dust. The parts are then covered on the inside with a coating of clay as thick as the bronze is intended to be. The mould is now closed, and filled on its inside with a nucleus or core of plaster and brickdust, mixed with water. When this is done, the mould is opened, and the clay carefully removed. The mould, with its core, are then thoroughly dried, and the core secured in its position by bars of bronze, which pass into it through the external part of the mould. The whoe is then bound with iron hoops, and the melted bronze is poured in through an aperture left for the purpose: of course, the bronze fills the same cavity which was previously occupied by the clay, and forms a metallic covering to the core. It is afterwards made smooth by mechanical means.

BRONZING. Bronze of a good quality acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tini, called patina antiqua, or, by the Romans, arugo. Corinthian brass receives in this way a beautiful clear green color. This appearance is imitated by an artificial process, called bronzing. A solution of sal ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vinegar is used for bronzing metals. Any number of layers may be applied, and the shade becomes deeper in proportion to the number applied. For bronzing sculptures of wood, plaster, figures, &c. à composition of yellow ochre, Prussian blue, and lampblack, dissolved in gluewater, is employed.

BRONZINO, Angelo, a painter of the Florentine school, and imitator of Micha Angelo, flourished about 1550. He painted a great number of portraits; and his historical paintings are distinguished by the striking and pleasing features of the heads which they contain. One of his best paintings is a Christ, in the church Santa Croce, at Florence. It is remarkable for its grouping and coloring, as wel as for the heads, many of which are the portraits of his friends and contemporaries; yet it is not altogether free from mannerism and affectation. Some persons have found fault with the nakedness of his figures. He died at Florence, 1570.

BROODING. (See Ornithology.)

BROOKLYN, a post-town of New York, in King's county, on the west end of Long Island, separated from the city of New York by East river. Population in 1810, 4,402; in 1820, 7,175. The village of B., within the township, is incorporat

ed, and has a pleasant and somewhat elevated situation, opposite to the city of New York, from which it is three fourths of a mile distant. It is a flourishing village, compactly and handsomely built, having various manufactures, and an extensive trade; and contained, in 1825, 8,800 inhabitants, and 5 houses of public worship. To the east of the village is a tract of land called the Wallaboght, which is the site of a navy-yard, and public store-houses, belonging to the U. States. Between B. and Flatbush, on the south, a severe battle was fought during the revolutionary war, between the British and Americans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss.

BROOKS, John, was born in Medford, Mass. in the year 1752. His father was a respectable farmer. After receiving a common education at the town school, young B. was indented as an apprentice, according to the prevailing custom, to doctor Simon Tufts, for the space of seven years. He here contracted an intimacy with the celebrated count Rumford, which was continued by correspondence until the latter's death.-After completing his studies, he commenced the practice of his profession in the neighboring town of Reading; but he had not been long so engaged, when the revolutionary war broke out, and he was appointed to command a company of minute men, whom he soon had an opportunity of exercising against the British, on their retreat from Lexington and Concord.-He was soon after raised to the rank of major in the continental service, and was distinguished for his knowledge of tactics, being considered as second, in that respect, to baron Steuben alone, with whom he was associated in the duty of introducing a uniform system of exercise and manoeuvres.-In 1777, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and had no small share in the capture of Burgoyne, on the 7th of October, at Saratoga.-When the conspiracy of some of the officers against the commander-in-chief, in March, 1783, had well nigh ruined the country, Washington rode up to Brooks, and requested him to keep his officers within quarters, to prevent their attending the insurgent meeting. Brooks replied, "Sir, I have anticipated your wishes, and my orders are given." Washington took him by the hand, and said, "Colonel Brooks, this is just what I expected from you." He was one of the committee who brought in the resolutions of the officers, expressing their abhorrence of this plot, and also

one of that appointed by the officers to adjust their accounts with congress.After the army was disbanded, colonel Brooks resumed the practice of medicine in Medford and the neighboring towns. He was soon after elected a member of the Massachusetts medical society, and, on its extension, and new organization, in the year 1803, a counsellor. He was for many years major-general of the militia of his county, and his division, during the insurrection of 1786, was very efficient in the protection of the courts of justice, and the support of the government. General Brooks also represented his town in the general court, and was a delegate in the state convention, for the adoption of the federal constitution, of which he was one of the most zealous advocates. In the late war with England, he was the adjutant-general of governor Strong, and was chosen to succeed him on his retirement from offic, almost without opposition. As governor, he discharged his duties with signal ability and excellent temper.-He was president of many literary, religious, patriotic, benevolent and professional societies.After discharging, for seven successive years, the duties of chief magistrate, he retired to private life, and spent his remaining years in the town of Medford, where he was much beloved. The inhabitants referred to him all their disputes, and his decisions generally satisfied both parties. The death of this excellent man took place in the 73d year of his age, March 1st, 1825.-As a physician, he was judicious and accurate in his investigations, and clear in his discernment; prudent rather than bold, and kind and attentive to his patients. His mind was active, ardent, and indefatigable. His whole conduct was regulated by the purest sentiments of morality and religion, imbibed at an early period,

BROOM; a genus of plants which includes numerous species. The common broom (spartium scoparium) is a shrub growing abundantly on sandy pastures and heaths in England. It is distinguished by having large, yellow, butterflyshaped flowers, leaves in threes, and single, and the branches angular. This is a handsome shrub, and one of the most useful of the common plants of Great Britain. Its twigs are tied in bundles, and formed into brooms. Some persons roast the seeds, and make them into a kind of coffee. The fibrous and elastic parts of the bark, separated by soaking in water, may be manufactured into cor

dage, matting, and even into a coarse kind of cloth. The twigs and young branches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark in tanning leather. They may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses and cornricks; and some persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they are wholesome. The flower-buds, when pickled, have, occasionally, been used as a substitute for capers. The wood, when the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated, by doctor Mead, that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy.-Spanish broom, or spart (spartium junceum), is an ornamental flowering shrub, common in English gardens, which has opposite round branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves. In the province of Valencia, and other parts of Spain, great attention is paid to the manufacture of various articles from the twigs and bark of this shrub. They are plaited into mats, carpets, covering for plants, baskets, ropes, and even shoes. A great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different French ports in the Mediterranean, particularly to Marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived the Spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the government.

BROSSES, Charles de, first president of the parliament of Burgundy, was born at Dijon in 1709. He applied himself to the study of law, and, at the same time, did not neglect the arts and sciences. His intimate acquaintance with Roman history produced in him a desire of visiting Italy, whither he went in 1739. On his return, he published his Letters on the present Condition of the subterraneous City Herculaneum (Dijon, 1750). Ten years afterwards appeared his treatise on the religious worship called Fetisch. At the request of Buffon, who had been his friend from youth, he wrote a History of the Voyages to Australia (1756). At that time, it was generally believed that there was a southern continent, to which De B. gave the name of Magellania. The erroneous nature of this supposition was first made known by Cook. A work of a very different kind succeeded this, and displayed the extent and variety of the author's learning. This was a treatise on the mechanical formation of languages. It contained, together with many imper

fections, numerous curious and profound investigations, ingenious conjectures, and penetrating views. De B. employed himself, through his whole life, on a work which was held in no slight estimation by the learned. This was a translation of Sallust, in which he labored to supply the lost parts of this historian. For this purpose, he collected above 700 fragments of Sallust, by means of which, with some important additions, he composed a his tory of the 7th century of the Roman republic, displaying a great extent of erudition. The work would have been received with greater approbation, if the graces of style had been joined to the depth and sagacity of research which it manifests. Though these various labors claimed a large portion of his time, yet they did not hinder him from attending to the duties of his office. He died in 1777. The manuscripts which he left were lost during the revolution.

BROTHEL. (See Bawdy-House.) BROTHERHOOD, HOLY. (See Herman

dad.)

BROTHERHOODS. (See Fraternities.) BROTHERS; male children of the same father or mother, or both. Among the ancients, the term was employed to denote more remote relations. Thus, among the Jews, Abraham was called the brother of Lot, his nephew. By the civil law, brothers and sisters stand in the second degree of consanguinity: by the canon law, they are in the first degree. In the monastic and military orders, the members were called brothers, as being united in one family. In Europe, the kings address each other by the title of brother: the president of the U. States uses the same title in addressing the Indian chiefs who are sent to talk with him.

BROUGHAM, Henry, was born at London, in 1779. He attracted public notice, originally, as one of the principal contributors to the Edinburgh Review. Sound learning, a terse and expressive style, logical reasoning, vigor and independence of thought, were the distinguishing traits of his compositions. But his efforts as a parliamentary orator, as an advocate, and as a public benefactor, have given him the most extensive reputation, and raised him to an enviable height in public opinion. As an advocate, he stands in the front rank of the English bar; and the variety of his talents and acquisitions have served to reflect credit upon his character as a lawyer; while the solid footing of professional eminence has communicated authority and weight to his exer

tions in other walks of life. His professional course has been, to a considerable degree, associated with his political career, in consequence of the differences between George IV, when prince-regent, and the then princess of Wales. During the discussions relative to her conduct and affairs, he acted as her counsel; and afterwards, on the accession of George IV, when queen Caroline claimed the rights and privileges of queen-consort, B. was appointed her attorney-general, and acted in that capacity at her trial. Of course, he belonged to the opposition party; and he has consistently maintained the principles of the whigs down to the present moment. The responsible part he took in behalf of queen Caroline secured to him the regard of her friends and of the opposition. But he possesses more solid claims to the respect of the liberal party, from his labors as a member of the house of commons. Among these may be mentioned his efforts to procure a repeal of the orders in council; his opposition to the leather tax; his opinions on the liberty of the press; his efforts in behalf of popular education; and, recently, his attempts to procure a reform in the administration of the laws. On all occasions, he has acted with purity and independence, and has proved himself above mere personal considerations. Although he never took office, yet he is, unquestionably, the most prominent man in the house. The variety of his powers and attainments is not the least of his claims to attention. Preeminent as a man of science, a literary man, a statesman, lawyer and orator, and throwing himself, with energy and success, into all these different departments of intellectual pursuit, he necessarily occupies a large space in the public eye. As an orator, he is neither finished nor accurate in style, but his characteristics are ingenuity and force of argument, quickness and strength of sarcasm, and a prompt, vigorous, impassioned style of reasoning, which render him, as an antagonist in debate, always redoubtable, and often irresistible. In addition to his contributions to the Edinburgh Review, and to various scientific journals, we may mention, among his publications, the following:-1. An Inquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers; 2 vols., 8vo., 1803. 2. On the State of the Nation. 3. Speech on the State of Commerce and Manufactures; 1812. 4. Speech at Liverpool; 1812. 5. Practical Observations on the Education of the People; 1825. 6.

Speech on the State of the Law; 1828. The reputation which he has hitherto acquired by his occasional efforts, upon temporary and transient subjects, is splendid; but he is now laying the foundation of a deeper and more brilliant fame, by his unwearied industry in the cause of popular instruction and of legal reform. As to the first, it is sufficient to say, that his principles on the subject of extending the elements of knowledge among the middling or lower classes, have met with the most decided support, and are the basis of much that is now doing for their improvement. His propositions of legal reform having been brought forward but lately, the result remains to be seen; but the reception they have met with augurs auspiciously for the result. His life, we hope, will long be spared to his country.

BROUGHTON'S ARCHIPELAGO; an extensive range of islands, rocky islets and rocks, in an arm of the Pacific ocean, on the west coast of North America; so called from an Englishman, who discovered them in 1790. Lon. 232° 56′ to 233° 40 E.; lat 50° 33′ to 51° N.

BROUSSONET, Pierre Marie Auguste, physician and naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1761, first introduced the Linnæan system into France. Daubenton, though an opponent of Linnæus, made him his substitute in the college de France, and, in 1784, his assistant in the veterinary school. B. read several valuable papers before the academy, and was chosen a member. As secretary of the agricultural society at Paris, he published the useful L'Année rurale ou Calendrier à l'Usage des Cultivaleurs, and caused the first flock of Merino sheep to be introduced from Spain, and Angora goats from the Levant. In 1789, he became a meinber of the national assembly, and, although he did not distinguish himself in political disputes, he was imprisoned by the convention as a Girondist. He escaped to Madrid, but was obliged, by the royalist émigrés, to fly from that place. By the assistance of his friend sir Joseph Banks, he embarked in an English vessel for India. A storm forced the vessel into the harbor of Lisbon, where he soon met with new persecutions. Under the title of physician to the American consul at Morocco, he went to Africa, and reassumed his botanical studies. His name was finally struck from the list of emigrants. He was made consul at Mogadore, and at the Canaries, and, in 1805, member of the corps legislatif. He died, in 1807, from the consequences of a fall

he had met with some time before, by which he lost his memory for all proper names and other substantives, but had adjectives in abundance at his command. His manuscripts are of great value. BROWER. (See Brauwer.)

BROWN, Charles Brockden, greatly distinguished as a novelist, and the editor of various periodical works, was born in the city of Philadelphia, in 1771. He was remarkable in his childhood for his attachment to books, and, at the age of 16, after having received a liberal education, had already formed plans of extensive literary works. The profession of which he made choice was the law. He was apprenticed to an eminent member of the Philadelphia bar, but, during the term intended for preparatory legal study, was, in fact, principally occupied with literary pursuits; and, when the time approached for his admission into the courts, he renounced, altogether, the legal career from constitutional timidity, and an invincible dislike to the scenes which courts present. His friends remonstrated and reasoned in vain. The youth desired only retirement and the employments of a student and an author. The delicacy of his frame, moreover, incapacitated him for the bustle of business and all athletic amusements. During frequent visits to New York, he became intimate with a literary club, who fostered his devotion to letters, and increased his eagerness to be conspicuous as a writer. He kept minute journals, indited essays and dissertations, and cultivated, with unremitting assiduity, the arts of composition.-The first novel which he wrote was entitled Sky Walk. It was never published, owing to the death of the printer, who had undertaken to issue it at his own risk. Parts of it were afterwards incorporated in the productions by which B. became so advantageously known to his country and Great Britain. The first of these was the novel called Wieland, which appeared in 1798. It soon acquired the reputation of a powerful and original romance. The next published, in the following year, was Ormond, or the Secret Witness, which had neither the success nor the merit of the other, but still exhibits uncommon powers of invention and description. At this time, B. had begun no less than five novels, two of which-Arthur Mervyn and Edgar Huntley-were completed and sent forth almost immediately. In Arthur Mervyn, the ravages of the yellow fever, which the author had witnessed in New York and Philadelphia, are painted

with terrific truth. All these compositions abound both with excellences and faults, and bear a character of originality. In 1801, he published another novelClara Howard-less open to exception, but also less deserving of praise. Its form is different from that of the others, being epistolary. The last of his novels was Jane Talbot, originally published in London, in 1804. It is deficient in interest, and, indeed, in all respects, inferior to its predecessors. In April, 1799, B. published the first number of the Monthly Magazine and American Review. This work he continued with great industry and ability until the end of the year 1800. He wrote abundantly for it. Circumstances compelled him to relinquish it; but, in 1805, he commenced another journal, with the title of the Literary Magazine and American Register; and, in this undertaking, he persevered for five years. His prolific pen gave birth to three large political pamphlets in the same interval. Their respective titles are, an Address to the Government of the U. States on the Cession of Louisiana to the French, and on the late Breach of Treaty by the Spaniards; the British Treaty; and an Address to the Congress of the C. States on the Utility and Justice of Restrictions on Foreign Commerce, with Reflections on Foreign Trade in general, and the future Prospects of America. In 1804, B. married Miss Linn, a sister of the amiable and popular poet, the reverend doctor John Blair Linn. The match proved eminently happy. In 1806, he entered upon a new work, a semi-annual American Register, five volumes of which he lived to complete and publish. It is now and must long be consulted as a valuable body of annals.-We have already mentioned the delicacy of B.'s constitution. It had a tendency to consump tion of the lungs, which his sedentary and studious habits unfortunately aggravated. In 1809, it was discovered that his lungs were seriously affected, and he then consented to travel for the recovery of his health. The remedy, however, was applied too late. In November of that year, after an excursion into the states of New Jersey and New York, he betook himself to his chamber, as he thought, for a few days; but his confinement lasted until February, and ended only with his life. He expired on the 22d of that month, at the age of 39. Among his manuscripts, an unfinished system of geography was found, to which his friends have ascribed rare merit. He was widely and critically