with greater severity than on his former campaign. In September, he marched back to Austria, and received, for his services, valuable estates in Bohemia, from his emperor. In the insurrection of Piedmont (q. v.), 1821, the count de B. received the chief command of the Austrian troops destined to restore the ancient government. After the accomplishment of this commission, he was appointed general commandant of Lombardy. He died at Milan, June 6, 1825, in the 56th year of his age.

BUCCANEERS; a band of English and French freebooters in America, whose exploits form one of the most remarkable parts of the history of the 17th century. After the assassination of Henry IV, in France, in 1610, several Frenchmen sought a residence on the island of St. Christopher, one of the Antilles. Driven thence in 1630, some of them fled to the western coast of St. Domingo, others to the small island of Tortugas, in the vicinity. Several Englishmen, led by a similar disposition, associated themselves with the latter. The fugitives at St. Domingo employed themselves especially in the chase of wild cattle, of which there were large herds on the island. They sold the hides to the mariners who landed on the coast, and, because they did not boil the flesh, but roasted it before the fire, like the American savages, they were called buccaneers. Without a captain, without laws, without the society of women, these hunters lived in the rudest state of nature, associating two by two, and enjoying in common all that they had taken in the chase or acquired by robbery. The Spaniards, who could not conquer them, determined to extirpate all the cattle on the island, and thus obliged the buccaneers either to cultivate the land as husbandmen, or to join the other freebooters on the island of Tortugas. These bold adventurers attacked, in small numbers, and with small means, but with an intrepidity which bade defiance to danger, not only single merchant vessels, but several of them together, and sometimes armed ships. Their common mode of attack was by boarding. They directed their efforts especially against the Spanish ships which sailed for Europe laden with the treasures of America. By the repeated losses which they suffered, the Spaniards were at last so discouraged, that they seldom offered a serious resistance. It happened once that a ship of the buccaneers fell in with two Spanish galleons, each of which had 60 cannon and 1500

men on board. To escape was impossible, and the pirates could not think of surrender. Their captain, Laurent, made a short speech to them, sent one of his men to the powder-room with orders to set fire to it upon the first sign which he should give him, and then placed his men in order of battle on each side. "We must sail between the enemy's ships," cried he to his crew, "and fire upon them to the right and left." This manœuvre was executed with extraordinary rapidity. The fire of the pirate killed so many people, on board both ships, that the Spaniards were struck with a panic, and let him escape. The Spanish commander was afterwards put to death on account of the disgrace which he had brought upon his nation. Their frequent losses greatly reduced the trade of the Spaniards with America. The buccaneers now began to land on the coast, and to plunder the cities. Their manner of dividing their booty was remarkable. Every one who had a share in the expedition swore that he had reserved nothing of the plunder. A false oath was of extremely rare occurrence, and was punished by banishment to an uninhabited island. The wounded first received their share, which was greater according to the severity of their wounds. The remainder was divided into equal parts, and distributed by lot. The leader received more than the others only when he had particularly distinguished himself. Those who had perished in the expedition were not forgotten. Their part was given to their relations or friends, and, in default of them, to the poor and to the church. Religion was strangely blended with their vices, and they always began their enterprises with a prayer. The wealth which they acquired was spent in gambling and debauchery, for it was the principle of these adventurers to enjoy the present and not care for the future. The climate and their mode of life gradually diminished their number, and the vigorous measures of the English and French governments at last put an end to their outrages, which had, perhaps, been purposely tolerated. From this band of pirates arose the French settlements on the western half of St. Domingo. In the beginning of the 18th century, the piracies of the buccaneers had entirely ceased. An account of their mode of life, and of many of their deeds, is to be found in the 10th volume of Raynal's History of the two Indies, and in the 2d volume of Archenholz's Historical Writings,

BUCENTAUR, in mythology; a monster, half man and half ox or ass. The splendid galley in which the doge of Venice annually sailed over the Adriatic on Ascension-Day also bore this name. Dropping a ring into the sea, he espoused it in the name of the republic, with the words Desponsamus te, mare, in signum veri perpetuique dominii. The custom originated in 1176, when the doge, having refused to deliver up the pope, who had taken refuge in Venice, to the emperor, encountered and defeated the imperial fleet which was sent to reduce the Venetians. BUCEPHALUS; the horse of Alexander the Great, which he bought for 13 talents (about 10 or 11,000 dollars). Philonicus, à Thessalian, offered to sell him to king Philip; but Philip, who considered the price too great, commanded the unmanageable steed to be led away, when the young Alexander offered to mount him. He leaped up, in fact, and, to the astonishment of all, the horse obeyed him, and willingly submitted to his guidance, though he had never before obeyed a rider. Alexander, from this circumstance, conceived such an affection for him, that he never rode upon any other horse; and Bucephalus, also, when caparisoned for battle, endured no other rider. He died of a wound, and Alexander caused him to be buried near the Hydaspes, and built, over his grave, a city, which he called Bucephala.

BUCER, Martin; born, 1491, at Schlettstadt, in Alsace. He died in the office of professor of theology at Cambridge, 1551. At the time of the reformation, he left the Dominican order, and became a convert to Lutheranism. He was, at first, preacher at the court of Frederic, the elector of the Palatinate, afterwards in Strasburg, and at the same time professor in the university there for 20 years, till king Edward VI of England, at the suggestion of archbishop Cranmer, invited him to Cambridge. In 1557, queen Mary caused his bones to be burned, to show her detestation of Protestantism. The cardinal Contarini called him the most learned divine among the heretics. He wrote a commentary on the Psalms, under the name of Aretius Filinus. His first wife had been a nun in her youth. After her death, he married again.

BUCH, Leopold von; born in 1777, in Prussia; one of the most distinguished geologists of Germany. He has studied the structure of the earth, by personal observation, for more than 30 years, in his travels through all the provinces of Ger

many, through Scandinavia to the North cape, through parts of Great Britain, France, Italy and the Canaries. In the possession of a happy independence, he sets out every spring, from Berlin, where he usually passes the winter, on his scientific travels. Simple in his habits, frugal, accustomed to hardships, he travels in the carriage, on horseback, on foot, as his purpose requires. He was the first geologist who clearly explained the dif ferent volcanic phenomena, particularly their effects on the elevation of the surface and the nature of the soil. He divides volcanoes into central volcanoes and volcanic chains. The latter appear to him to follow the direction of great clefts in the earth, which, in turn, correspond with the direction of the primitive mountains. His central volcanoes are, Etna, the isles of Lipari, Iceland, the Azores, the Canaries, &c. The results of his geological labors are contained in his Geognostical Observations on Travels through Germany and Italy (1802), and his Physical Description of the Canaries, where he lived, in 1815, for several months. He was afterwards accompanied by the Norwegian botanist Christian Smith, who, some years later, was among the victims of the unhappy expedition of captain Tuckey in the Congo river. Buch's Travels through Norway and Lapland (2 vols., Berlin, 1810, with copperplates) is one of the best works on the structure of the earth in the high northern regions.

He

BUCHANAN, George, an eminent poet and historian, and one of the great masters of modern Latinity, was born in Scotland, in 1506. His parents were indigent, and he owed his education to an uncle, who sent him to Paris. He afterwards repaired to St. Andrew's. became tutor or companion of the earl of Cassilis, with whom he lived five years, and obtained the notice of James V, who appointed him tutor to his natural son, afterwards the famous regent, earl of Murray. His satires against the monks exposed him to the vengeance of the clergy, and he was imprisoned for heresy; but, contriving to escape, he withdrew to Bourdeaux, where he taught three years, and composed his tragedies of Baptistes and Jepthes, and his translations of the Medea and Alcestes of Euripides. In 1543, he quitted Bourdeaux on account of the pestilence, and became, for a while, domestic tutor to the celebrated Montaigne, who records the fact in his essays. In 1544, he went to Paris, and,

for some time, taught in the college of Bourbon. In 1547, he accompanied his friend Govea to Portugal. He had not been there a year before Govea died, and, the freedom of B.'s opinions giving of fence, he was thrown into prison, where he began his translations of the Psalms into Latin verse. He obtained his liberty in 1551, and spent four years at Paris, as tutor to the son of the marshal de Brissac. In 1560, he returned to Scotland, where he openly embraced Protestantism, yet was well received at court, and assisted the queen in her studies. He was also employed in regulating the universities, and was made principal of St. Leonard's college, St Andrew's. He even obtained a pension from Mary, which did not prevent him from connecting himself with the party of Murray. Though a layman, he was made, in 1567, moderator of the general assembly, which appointed him preceptor to James VI, who acquired, under his tuition, the scholastic knowledge on which he so much prided himself. It is said that Buchanan, on being subsequently told that he had made the king a pedant, replied, that "it was the best he could make of him." He next accompanied Murray to England, in order to prefer charges against Mary, and, in 1571, published his Detectio Maria Regina, a virulent attack upon the character and conduct of that unhappy queen; and, although his patron Murray had been assassinated in 1570, he continued in favor with the prevalent party, who made him one of the lords of the council and lord of the privy seal. He likewise received a pension of £100 per annum from queen Elizabeth. In 1579, he published his celebrated De Jure Regni, a work which will ever rank him among the spirited defenders of the rights of the people to judge of the conduct of their governors. He spent the last 12 or 13 years of his life in composing his great work, entitled Rerum Scoticarum Historia, in 90 books, which was published at Edinburgh, in 1582. He died the same year, at the age of 76, in very poor circumstances; and the city of Edinburgh interred him at the public expense.-The moral character of B. has been the subject of much obloquy with his enemies; and the charge of early licentiousness seems countenanced by several of his poems. Conscious of his great abilities, he was also querulous and discontented with his circuinstances, and by no means scrupulous in his attempts to amend them; added to which, his temper was harsh and unamiable, and his

conduct, as a party man, exceedingly virulent. As a writer, he has obtained high applause from all parties; and as a Latin poet, in particular, he stands among the first of the moderns. His Psalms are in all kinds of measure, and some of them are extremely beautiful. As a historian, he is considered to have united the beauties of Livy and Sallust as to style; but he discovered a great lack of judgment and investigative spirit, taking up all the tales of the chronicles as he found them, and affording to their legendary absurdities the currency of his own eloquent embellishment. On the whole, however, B. may justly be deemed an honor to his country; as a man whose genius burst through all disadvantages to the attainment of a wide and justly-celebrated distinction. Of his different works in verse and prose, various editions have been given; and a valuable edition of the whole was published at Edinburgh, in 2 vols. folio, 1714, and reprinted at Leyden, in 2 vols. 4to., 1725.

BUCHAREST (i. e. city of joy), the chief city of Walachia, the residence of the hospodar and of a Greek bishop, contains 10,000 meanly built houses, and 60,000 inhabitants, including Greeks, Jews and Armenians. The streets are not paved, but covered with logs. The Greeks formerly had an academy here with 12 instructers, which, in 1810, contained 244 students. It has declined since the present hospodar Ghika, a native of Walachia, took possession of its funds in 1825. The trade in wine, skins, and other products of the country, is very brisk. May 28, 1812, a peace was concluded here between Russia and the Porte.

Bucharest, Peace of, May 28, 1812, between Russia and the Porte. In November, 1806, the emperor Alexander took up arms for the protection of Moldavia and Walachia, and on account of the violation of the free navigation of the Bosphorus. He occupied Moldavia, upon which the Porte declared war against Russia, Jan. 7, 1807. An armistice, however, was agreed upon at Slobosia, Aug. 24, 1807, in consequence of the peace of Tilsit, by which the Russians evacuated the principality. After the expiration of the truce, in April, 1808, it was tacitly continued; but when Napoleon, in the congress at Erfurt, had agreed to the union of the two principalities with Russia, the Russian court opened a congress, to deliberate upon peace at Jassy, in Feb., 1809, and demanded the cession of both principalities by the Turks, and the re

moval of the British ambassador from Constantinople. Upon this, the Porte broke off the negotiations, and in April, 1809, the war was renewed. The Russians advanced to Bulgaria, and, after two bloody campaigns, remained masters of the Danube. The Porte now offered terms of peace. A congress was opened at B. in Dec., 1811. Napoleon soon after turned his arms against Russia, and concluded an alliance with Austria, March 14, 1812, by which both powers guarantied the integrity of the Porte. He also did all in his power to induce the Porte to continue the war. But the interposition of Great Britain and Sweden, as well as the concessions of Russia, and the distrust of the Porte towards Napoleon, brought to a conclusion the peace of B., which was signed, on the part of the Russians, by Andri Italinski, Sabanejeff, and Jos. Fonton, May 28. The Porte gave up to Russia all Bessarabia and a third of Moldavia, with the fortresses of Choczim, Bender, Ismail and Kilia, so that the Pruth, as far as to its confluence with the Danube, became the boundary between the two powers, and from thence the left bank of the Danube as far as Kilia, and even to its entrance into the Black sea. The Russians gave back the remainder of their conquests. In Asia, the boundaries were established as before the war. The Porte granted the Servians, who had fought for their independence as allies of the Russians, a full amnesty, with the right of administering their internal affairs themselves, and of raising, in the way which they should judge best, the small tax which the Porte imposed upon them. The Servians, however, would not accept these conditions, and continued the contest, but were soon overpowered by the Turks.

BUCHARIA, GREAT; a country of Central Asia, lying between the parallels of 35° and 44° N. lat., and from 60° to 72° E. lon. It comprehends the three provinces of Bucharia Proper, Samarcand and Balkh, corresponding to the country of the nomade Scythians, Sogdiana and Bactriana of ancient geography. It forms the south-eastern part of Tartary, and, being occupied chiefly by the Usbeck Tartars (q. v.), is sometimes called Usbeckistan. The original inhabitants, or Taujiks, a Persian colony, are handsomer than the Tartars, and still speak the Persian language. They live in cities, and carry on a trade with Russia, China, Hindostan and Persia. There are also many Jews in the country. The rivers are the

Gihon or Oxus, the Sir, or Jaxartes, and the Sogd. The Bucharians or Taujiks lead a frugal life, their food consisting chiefly of rice, wheat, millet, and, above all, fruits, such as melons, grapes and apples: they are fond of horse-flesh, but it is expensive, and beef is more used. Tea and wine, the former flavored with anise, are their principal drink: they intoxicate themselves with opium, and their bread is not fermented. Besides these articles, which, except tea, are produced in the country, the principal vegetable productions are the Judas tree, the rhubarb, assafoetida, &c. B. is supposed to be the native country of the camel, and a large, shaggy variety, called luk, has the peculiarity of blowing a large bladder from its mouth when it utters a cry. Other varieties of the camel, and dromedaries, fine horses, and asses, of various sorts, abound. Sheep and cows are scarce. Several rare birds are found here, particularly the tetrao paradoxus. This bird resembles the partridge of the desert, except in the structure of its feet, which consist of one large toe, placed between two diminutive ones, resting on a hard sole, and enabling it to run with great speed over the dry, gritty sand. The province of Balkh, which is described by geographers as forming a part of B., lies on the south of the Oxus, and belongs at present, to the Afghans. The two provinces on the north of that river form the Transoxana, famous in Arabian and Tartar history, under the Arabian name Maweralnahr (beyond the river), where Timur received the homage of so many conquered princes. His descendants were driven out by the Tartars in the 15th century. The government, as in other Mohammedan states, is despotic. The population, extent and revenue of the state have not been ascertained. (Eversmann's Reise nach Buchara, Berlin, 1823: Elphinstone's Caubul; Meyendorf's Jour nal (in French), Paris, 1826.) Bucharia. or Bochara, a large and populous city, has often disputed with Samarcand the title of capital. Its population has been stated at from 100,000 to 200,000. The streets are so narrow, that a loaded camel filis the space from side to side. The houses are low, and built of mud and brick. The number of mosques is said to be 360, and that of medreses, or schools, 285. It has always been distinguished for the study of theology and Mohammedan law. Bis the commercial emporium of Central Asia for the Hindoos, Afghans, Persians, Russians, Chinese and Arabians. The trade is carried on by caravans, and there are

10 large caravansaries in the city. The caravans bring Russian and English manufactures from the Russian towns, and return silk, wool, Cashmere shawls, indigo, &c. About 500 camels bring silk and woollen cloths, shawls, &c. from Meschid and Herat, and Russian manufactures are carried back in return. China ware and tea from Cashgar, and shawls, calicoes, muslins, from Caubul and Cashmere, are the other principal articles of import.-A description of the city is contained in the work of Meyendorf, above referred to, who was attached to the Russian mission to B. in 1820.

Bucharia, Little, as it is improperly called, lies east of Great B., stretching from 73° to 100° E. lon., and from 38° to 44° N. lat. It is very imperfectly known, but appears to be bounded on the north and east by the Calmuck country, on the south by 'Thibet, and on the west is separated from Great Bucharia by the Beloor mountains. It is a very elevated country, forming a portion of the great central plateau of Asia, which constitutes a sixth part of the old continent, yet shrouds from the curious philosopher its mineral, animal and vegetable productions. The climate is very rigorous, owing to the great elevation of the country. It was overrun, in 1683, by the Calmucks, who were subdued by the Chinese in 1759. Little is known of the origin and manners of the native inhabitants, who still form the principal part of the population. The divisions into provinces are very differently stated by different authors. Cashgar, with a town of the same name, Yarkand, also with a town of the same name, which, by some, is thought to be the capital of Little B., if, indeed, Yarkand is not merely another name for Cashgar, and the other provinces, are little known. Both sexes wear long drawers, and a garment reach ing to the calf, bound round the waist by a girdle. The women dye their nails with henna. The houses are chiefly of stone, and furnished with articles of Chinese manufacture. Tea is the general beverage, taken, in the manner of Central Asia, with milk, butter and salt.

BUCHER, Anthony von, a well known and much esteemed Catholic writer against the Jesuits, born in Münich, Jan. 8, 1746, was educated in the Latin schools of the Jesuits, studied at Ingoldstadt, and was consecrated priest in 1768. In his different offices as a public teacher, he has done a great deal to instruct and enlighten his country. His contributions to the history of the Jesuits in Bavaria (Beiträge

zur Geschichte der Jesuiten in Baiern) are of great historical value. His works were published in 6 vols., Münich, 1819 et seq.

BUCHHOLZ, Paul Ferdinand Frederic; born, Feb. 5, 1768, at Altruppin (Old Ruppin). At the age of 32, he resigned the office of teacher at Brandenburg, and went to Berlin, where, for 21 years, he has been an author. He is best known to foreign countries as the publisher of the New Monthly Journal for Germany. In many of his writings, he tries to prove the existence of a law of gravitation in the moral as well as the natural world.

BUCK; the male of the fallow deer, also of rabbits and other animals. (See Deer, Rabbit, &c.)

BUCKEBURG. (See Lippe.)

BUCKETS, in water-wheels, are a series of cavities into which the water is delivered, on the circumference of the wheel to be set in motion. By the revolution of the wheel, the buckets will be alternately erected so as to receive water, and inverted so as to discharge it; the loaded side will descend, and present the empty buckets in succession to the current, and thus keep up a constant revolution of the wheel.

BUCKINCK, Arnold, the first artist who engraved geographical maps on copper. He brought this art to a high degree of perfection. Schweynheym, who had learnt the secret of printing from the inventors, Faustus and Schoeffer, wished to publish an edition of Ptolemy. Wood cuts were too imperfect for the maps contained in the expensive manuscripts of it. Sweynheym determined to engrave them on copper, and, for that purpose, associated himself with B. The former died during the progress of the work. B. completed it. The first edition of Ptolemy with maps (for the edition of 1468 is certainly dated wrong) at length appeared in folio, at Rome, 1478, and concluded as follows: Claudii Ptolemæi Alexandrini philosophi geographiam, Arnoldus Buckinck e Germania Romæ tabulis aneis in picturis formatam impressit sempiterno ingenii artificiique monumento, &c. These charts are also added to some Roman editions of Ptolemy published afterwards.

BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of; the unworthy favorite of James I and Charles I of England; born, 1592, at Brookesby, in Leicestershire, of a family which came thither, from Normandy, in the time of William the Conqueror. In his youth, he showed little taste or little