ed together in small tufts. (See Hottentots.) BUSHWANAS, or BOSHUANAS, or BETJOUANAS; an African people, occupying the country lying between 20° and 25° S. latitude, divided into several tribes. Though under the government of separate chiefs, who are often at war with each other, these tribes are united by language, manners and customs. Less tall than the Caffres, and as well proportioned, their form is even more elegant. Their skin is of a brown tint, between the shining black of the Negro and the yellow color of the Hottentots. They surpass the Caffres in civilization and the arts of life. Some of their towns are considerable. Kurechanee was visited by Campbell in 1821, who estimated the population at 16,000. Inoculation for the smallpox is practised there. Old and New Leetakoo contain each 4000 inhabitants. The Bushwanas are inquisitive and intelligent; without any settled occupation, yet always active. Their principal food is the curds of milk and the produce of the chase they rarely kill cattle, and have an invincible aversion to fish. The ashes in which their meat is cooked serve them for salt. Their clothes are made of the skins of animals: the women cover the breast, and leave the belly exposed. Their ornaments are rings and bracelets of ivory and brass. Their houses are light, clean, airy, and generally of a circular form. They are very skilful in tempering iron, and making their arms, which consist of a hassagay (javelin), a shield and a club. Polygamy is established among them; a young man buys a wife for 10 or 12 oxen: her first business is to build a house, for which she fells the necessary quantity of wood. The erection of the stable, the cultivation of the fields, and all the household work, falls to her. As soon as he can afford it, the Bushwana buys a second wife, who, in like manner, must build a house and stable, and cultivate a piece of ground. Honesty, loyalty and courage are the highest virtues, in their estimation. They have an idea of a soul, and believe in an invisible Lord of nature, the sovereign Dispenser of good and evil, whom they call Mourimo. Their principal ceremonies are circumcision and the blessing of cattle. They divide the year into 13 lunar months, and distinguish the planets from the fixed stars. Christianity has been introduced among them by missionaries, and with it some degree of civilization. BUSKIN (in Greek and Latin, cothurnus); a kind of high shoe worn upon the stage, by the ancient actors of tragedy, in order to give them a more heroic appearance. It was introduced by Sophocles, and, from this use, the word is figuratively employed, by the classic authors, for tragedy itself (Juvenal, xv. 29), or for a lofty and elevated style (grande munus Cecropio cothurno, Hor. Od. ii. 1, 12). The buskin was also worn, by both sexes, particularly by the ladies, for ornament (Juv. vi. 505). The Melpomene in the Villa Borghese has the buskin. Hunters and soldiers used a different kind, resembling the half-boot. BUST (Italian, il busto, from the Latin bustum), in sculpture; the representation of that portion of the human figure, which comprises the head and the upper part of the body. Busts are of different extent: 1. such as consist of the head, the upper part of the neck, and the upper part of the shoulders; 2. heads with the upper part of the chest, to the end of the breastbone (busts properly so called); and, 3. heads with the whole chest to the middle of the body, often to the hips. Between the bust and its pedestal is sometimes a column, or a square prop; such a bust is called Herme. The figure is sometimes in relief. The origin of the bust may be derived from the Herme, and from the custom of the Greeks and Romans to decorate their shields with portraits, and their vestibules with the images of their ancestors. Busts were afterwards used for the images of their gods, as being less expensive. The greater part have been found in Rome and Italy. Some remarkable ones have been obtained from Herculaneum, in bronze. The chief difficulty in the execution of busts arises from this circumstance, that we are accustomed to estimate the size of the head by comparing it with the whole body. In a bust, therefore, the head appears disproportionately large, and the artist is obliged to yield, in some measure, to this ocular deception, by lessening its natural proportion. BUSTARD; the trivial name of a species of wader belonging to the genus otis, L, and to the family pressirostres, C. The great bustard (otis tarda, L.) is the largest of European land-birds, the male weighing, on an average, 25 pounds. It is four feet in length, and measures nine feet from tip to tip of the wings. The head and neck are ash-colored, and there is a tuft of feathers about five inches long on each side of the lower mandible. The back is transversely barred with black and bright ferruginous colors, and the primaries are black. The tail consists of 20 feathers, broadly barred with red and black. The belly is white, the legs dusky, naked, and without a hind toe. The female is but half the size of the male, and has the crown of the head of a deep orange color, traversed by red lines; the remainder of the head is brown. She otherwise resembles the male, except that the color of her plumage is less bright. This species is found in most of the open and level countries of the south and east of England, where they are occasionally seen, in autumn, in flocks of 50 and upwards. They are very shy and vigilant, and by no means easy to shoot. They run with great speed, and aid their course with their wings, like the ostrich. Although they rise on the wing with difficulty, they are said to fly many miles without resting. They feed on grain, seeds, worms, &c., and lay two eggs, as large as those of a goose: these are of a pale olive tint, with dark spots. The nest is merely a hole scraped in the earth. They do not wander far from their accustomed haunts, seldom going to a greater distance than 20 or 30 miles. Their flesh is considered fine eating. BUTCHERS have been much the same in all ages and countries, and we know not of any great improvements that modern art or science has introduced into the practice of slaughtering animals. The ancient Scythians, and their Tartar descendants, seem to be peculiar in their taste for horse-flesh. The Romans appear to have loved beef, and veal, and mutton, as well as the modern Europeans and their American descendants: cara omnia, is the complaint of the old comic writer, agninam caram, caram bubulam, vitulinam, porcinam, omnia cara. In Paris, the butcheries, formerly receptacles of filth, and injurious to health, were removed by Napoleon, in 1809, to the outskirts of the city. They are called abattoirs (abattre, to fell), and consist of spacious buildings for the reception of the cattle, preparing the tripe, tallow, &c, and reservoirs of water for the service of the establishments. Of these there are five, in which are slaughtered annually 75,000 black cattle, with a proportionate number of sheep, &c. The larger animals are felled by a blow on the head, and the jugular vein is immediately separated with a knife. The flesh is then blown (gonflé), by injecting air into the vessels through a bellows, which gives it a plump appear ance. Every part of the animal-bones, horns, hoofs, blood, intestines, hide, tallow-is used for the fabrication of glue, jelly, Prussian blue, sal-ammoniac, &c. In London, the carcass butchers kill the meat, and sell it out in great quantities; the retail butchers sell it out to the consumers. The average number of oxen sold at Smithfield annually is 156,000; sheep and lambs, 1,500,000; calves, 22,000; hogs, 20,000. The Jews in London have their own butchers, who are licensed by the rabbis. They cut the throats of the animals, never knocking them down, according to the usual practice. In some countries, the method of slaughtering cuttle by penetrating the spinal marrow is practised. BUTE; a small island of Scotland, lying at the mouth of the Clyde, with an area of 29,000 acres, belonging principally to the marquis of Bute. The climate is moist and mild. The herring fishery is a profitable employment. The only town is Rothesay, the ruins of the castle of which, formerly inhabited by the Scottish monarchs, still remain. It gave the title of duke of Rothesay to the heir apparent of Scotland. The title is now transferred to the prince of Wales. BUTE (John Stuart) earl of; a British statesman, born in the beginning of the 18th century, in Scotland. His ancestors had been elevated to the peerage in 1703, and were connected with the old kings of Scotland. In his youth, B. seemed devoted to pleasure, and little inclined to engage in politics; nevertheless, in 1737, after the death of a Scottish peer, he was chosen to fill his seat in parliament. In consequence of his opposition to the measures of the ministry, he was left out when a new parliament was convened, in 1741. Offended by this neglect, B. retired to his estates, and lived there, wholly secluded, till the landing of the Pretender in Scotland, 1745, induced him to go to London, and offer his services to the government. Notwithstanding this manifestation of zeal, he would not have been brought forward again, if he had not attracted the notice of the prince of Wales, at an exhibition of private theatricals, in consequence of which he was invited to the court. Here he soon gained influence, and succeeded in making himself indispensable to the prince. At his death, in 1751, he was appointed, by the widowed princess, chamberlain to her son, and was intrusted by her with his education. B. never lost sight of his pupil, and possessed so much more influence with the princess of Wales than her son's particular tutors, the earl of Harcourt and the bishop of Norwich, that they resigned their offices. Lord Waldegrave and the bishop of Lincoln, who were chosen in their stead, opposed him unsuccessfully. George II died Oct. 25, 1760, and, two days after, B. was appointed member of the privy council. In March, 1761, the parliament was dissolved. B. was made secretary of state, in the place of lord Holderness, and appointed Charles Jenkinson, afterwards lord Hawkesbury and earl of Liverpool, his under-secretary. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer, was removed. Pitt (the great Chatham), who saw his influence in the new council annihilated, gave in his resignation the same year. This event made an unfavorable impression on the nation; but B., possessing the unbounded confidence of his king, stood at the head of the state. Soon after, he removed the old duke of Newcastle, then first lord of the treasury, and the only one of the former ministry remaining in office, and immediately took this important post upon himself, receiving, at the same time, the order of the garter. After a severe contest in parliament, he concluded a peace with France. The terms for England were perhaps not disproportionate to the successes obtained during the war; but it was disgraceful that the king of Prussia, in violation of former treaties, should have been left to his fate. B. was obliged to hear the most bitter reproaches; yet he succeeded in winning the popular favor, and every thing seemed to promise the power of the minister a long continuance. He had rendered the whigs objects of suspicion to the king, and excluded them from the administration; on the contrary, he favored the tories, even the former Jacobites, and thus surrounded the king with persons whose principles coincided with his own, especially with his Scotch countrymen. The people murmured, and numberless pamphlets attacked the minister with bitterness, who was slowly gaining the confidence of the public, when new causes of dissatisfaction produced a great irritation against him. To discharge the debt contracted by the war, he was obliged to negotiate a loan, the interest of which was to be paid by a tax on cider, perry, &c. In spite of the opposition, the bill passed both houses. The city of London in vain petitioned the king to refuse his consent. The influence of B. seemed unbounded, when it was made known, contrary to expectation, that he had resigned his office as prime minister, and was, in future, to live as a private man. George Grenville succeeded him in the ministry. B. soon perceived the weakness of the administration, and endeavored to unite himself with Pitt. The plan failed, and the exasperation of the people was redoubled. B. was still considered as the soul of the royal resolutions, and particularly as the author of the stamp act, which kindled the first flame of discord between Great Britain and the North American colonies. Certain it is, that his friends spoke zealously against its repeal. Those ministers who did not support B.'s views were removed. His adherents, who called themselves friends of the king, formed a powerful party. They were stigmatized with the old name of cabal, and were denounced as the authors of all the present evils. In 1766, B. declared, in the house of lords, that he had wholly withdrawn from public business, and no longer saw the king; still it was not doubted that his great influence continued. On the death of the princess of Wales, 1772, he seems first to have given up all participation in the affairs of government. The public hatred towards him ceased, and he was forgotten. He spent his last years on his estate. A costly botanical garden, a library of 30,000 volumes, excellent astronomical, philosophical and mathematical instruments, afforded him occupation. His favorite study was botany, with which he was intimately acquainted. For the queen of England, he wrote the Botanical Register, which contained all the different kinds of plants in Great Britain (9 vols., 4to.). This work is remarkable, both for its splendor, in which it excels all former botanical works, and for its rarity. Only 12 copies were printed, at an expense of more than £10,000 sterling, B. died in 1792. He had more pretension than ability. By engaging in politics, for which he had neither talent nor knowledge, he lost his own quiet, and his imprudent measures brought trouble and confusion on the nation. He was reproached with haughtiness; but this was the fault of a noble spirit; and he steadily refused, during his ministry, to employ venal writers. Distrustful and reserved, he has been described as harsh, imperious and obstinate; yet he was generally irresolute, and even timid. His morals were irreproachable. In private life, he displayed an amiable simplicity. BUTLER, James, duke of Ormond; an eminent statesman in the reigns of Charles I and II. He was born at London; suc ceeded his grandfather, in 1632, and, although all his connexions were Catholics, his wardship being claimed by James I, he was brought up a member of the church of England, to which he ever after constantly adhered. When Strafford became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, B. was made commander of the army, which consisting of only 3000 men, he could do little more than keep the enemy in check, and was obliged to agree to a cessation of hostilities; after which, having been created a marquis, he was appointed lordlieutenant. On the ruin of the royal cause, he retired to France. After the execution of Charles, he returned to Ireland, with a view of raising the people; but, on the landing of Cromwell, he again returned to France. While abroad, he exerted himself to further the restoration of Charles; and, when that event was brought about by Monk, returned with the king. Before the coronation, he was created duke, and assisted at that ceremony as lord high steward of England. In 1662, he was again appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, which country he restored to comparative tranquillity, and was an active benefactor to it, by encouraging various improvements, particularly the growth of flax and manufacture of linen. On the exile of lord Clarendon, his attachment to that nobleman involved B. in much of the odium attached to him, and although, on his recall from Ireland, nothing, on the most rigorous inquiry, could be proved against him, he was removed by the machinations of Buckingham. In 1670, a desperate design was formed by the noted colonel Blood, whom he had imprisoned in Ireland, to seize his person, and hang him at Tyburn. The project succeeded so far, that he was one night forcibly taken out of his coach in St. James's street, placed behind a horseman, and carried some distance; but at length he threw the man and himself from the horse by his personal exertions, and obtained assistance before he could be replaced. The king sent lord Arlington to request the duke to forgive the insult; who calinly replied, that, "If his majesty could pardon Blood for his attempt to steal the crown, he might easily pardon that upon his life;" adding, that he would obey the king, without inquiring his reason." For six years, he was deprived of court favor, but at length was again appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, which place he held during the remainder of the reign of Charles; but soon after resigned, his principles not suiting the policy of James. He died at his seat in Dorsetshire, in 1688, leaving behind him the character of a man who united the courtier and the man of honor and integrity better than any nobleman of the time. BUTLER, Joseph; an English prelate of distinguished eminence as a writer on ethics and theology. He was born in 1692, at Wantage, in Berkshire, where his father was a shopkeeper, and a Presbyterian dissenter. After some previous education at a grammar-school, he was sent to an academy at Tewkesbury, with a view to ordination as a minister among the dissenters. While occupied by lis studies, he gave a proof of his talents by some acute and ingenious remarks on doctor Samuel Clarke's Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, in private letters addressed to the author. He likewise paid particular attention to the points of controversy between the members of the established church and u dissenters, the result of which was a determination to be no longer a nonconform ist; and he therefore removed to Oxford, in 1714. Having taken orders, he was in 1718, appointed preacher at the Rol chapel, and, in 1736, he was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen. same year, he published his celebrated work, the Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution ai Course of Nature. In 1738, doctor R was promoted to the bishopric of Bristel on the recommendation of queen Car line; and, in 1750, obtained his highes preferment-the bishopric of Durham. He died in 1752, and was interred in Bristo cathedral. A charge, delivered to the clergy of the diocese of Durham, on the subject of external religion, together with the circumstance of his setting up a marble cross in his chapel at Bristol, gave rise to suspicions that he was inclined the principles of popery; and, after his death, a report was spread that he had died in the Catholic faith; but this story was satisfactorily contradicted by archbishop Secker. The BUTLER, Samuel, a celebrated English poet, was the son of a farmer in Stren ham, in Worcestershire, where he was born in 1612, and educated at Cambridge. He resided some time with sir Samul Luke, a commander under Cromwell. Ia this situation, B. acquired the materials for his Hudibras, by a study of tho around him, and particularly of sir Sam uel himself, a caricature of whom constituted the celebrated knight Hudibras. are, Butter, Cheese, 4.5 3.5 92.0 100.0 The first part of Hudibras was published of these products, in 100 parts of cream, in 1663, and was brought into the notice of the court by the well-known earl of Dorset. It immediately became highly popular with the prevailing party in church and state, and served as a general source of quotation; the king himself perpetually answering his courtiers out of Hudibras. Celebrated as it rendered its author, it did nothing towards extricating him from indigence. All the bounty of Charles was a gratuity, said to amount to £300. Thus unpatronised, but respected for his integrity, and beloved for his social qualities, he died in 1680, and was buried in St. Paul's church, Covent garden, at the expense of his friend Mr. Longueville, of the Temple. A monument was, 40 years after, erected to his memory in Westminster abbey, by alderman Barber, the printer, lest, as the inscription observes, ne cui vivo deerant fere omnia, deesset etiam mortuo tumulus (he who, when living, wanted every thing, should, when dead, also want a tomb). Of Hudibras it is scarcely necessary to observe, that, both in its style and matter, it is one of the most original works that was ever written, and that it exhibits the faculty especially denominated wit, meaning the power of rapid illustration by remote contingent resemblances, to a most remarkable degree. Possessed of much wit, of great knowledge of life, and extensive learning, B. united in himself all the requisites for his very peculiar undertaking. As a work intended to ridicule the Puritans, the attraction of Hudibras was great, but temporary. As applicable to classes of character which exist for ever, its satire always will be relished. Fanaticism, hypocrisy, and time-serving venality, are of all ages. Its diction, though coarse and negligent, is adapted for the conveyance of the odd and whimsical notions and associations with which the work abounds. In fact, the originality of B., as to matter, elicited equal originality in its delivery. In 1759, appeared the Genuine Remains, in Prose and Verse, of Mr. Butler, from the original Manuscripts, formerly in the Possession of W. Longueville, Esquire (2 vols., 8vo.). BUTTER; an oily substance, produced from the milk of kine. Cream is composed of an oily substance, a caseous matter, and serum or whey. If it be agitated about an hour in a churn, a separation of these parts takes place, and a solid, called butter, and a liquid, called butter-milk, consisting of the whey and the caseous matter, are the products. The proportions VOL. II. 30 Chemical analysis gives stearine, elaine, and a small quantity of acid and coloring matter, as the component parts of butter. Beckmann (History of Inventions, 372) comes to the conclusion that butter is not of Grecian nor of Roman invention; but that the Greeks received it from the Scythians, Thracians and Phrygians, and that the Romans derived it from the people of Germany, and used it as a medicine, rather than as a culinary luxury. In warm countries, the place of butter is still, for the most part, supplied by oil. In Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the south of France, it is to be purchased in the apothecaries' shops. The difficulty of keeping it any length of time is, indeed, an effectual barrier to its general use. The ancients appear to have been wholly deficient in the art of giving it consistency. The European countries, in which oil or butter is used, says Malte-Brun (Géog., liv. xcv), may be separated by a line extending along the Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps and mount Hæmus. To the north, the pasturage is better; cattle abound, and the food is chiefly derived from them. The olive-groves to the south supersede the use of butter by that of oil. The butter, beer, and animal food, of the north of Europe, give way to oil, wine and bread, in the warmer regions. The word chameah, translated butter, in the English version of the Bible, means some liquid preparation of milk or cream. It was in general use among the Celts:-Spuma id est lactis, concretiorque quam quod serum vocatur, barbararum gentium lautissimus cibus. (Pliny, ix, 41, and xxviii, 9.) The Hindoos make use of ghee, which means butter clarified by boiling. They boil the milk two or three hours, which, when cool, is fermented with curdled milk, left to sour, churned, and, when it is sufficiently rancid, is boiled, and mixed with salt, or betel-leaf, and ruddle, to improve its taste and color. BUTTERFLY. (See Papilio.) BUTTMANN, Philip Charles; born at Frankfort, in 1764; studied at Göttingen; was tutor of the princes of Dessau; and, in 1800, professor of the gymnasium of Joachimsthal; at present, second librarian and member of the academy of sciences in Berlin. (See Löwe's Autobiography of |