from those parts which are not impregnated with the mordant, but remains permanently fixed to the rest. When additional colors are required, they are printed over the rest, with different mordants, suited to the color intended to be produced. This secondary printing is generally performed with blocks, engraved in the manner of wood-cuts, and applied by hand to the successive parts of the piece.

CALICUT; a city of Hindostan, formerly capital of the kingdom of C., which was ceded to the British in 1792. From this port the first vessel was freighted with Indian commodities for Europe, by Vasco da Gama, in 1498. The ancient city, however, is now buried beneath the sea; and, at low tides, the tops of temples and minarets are discernible. The present town stands on a low shore, and has considerable trade. It was taken and destroyed by Tippoo Saib, but was rebuilt when the country fell into the hands of the English. Cardamoms, teak, sandalwood, pepper and wax are the principal exports. It contains 5000 houses. Lat. 11° 15′ N.; lon. 75° 50′ E. The rajah of the C. district, or the Tamuri rajah, called Zamorin by the Europeans, is a Bramin, who pretends to be superior to the other Bramins, and inferior only to the gods. The males of the family are called Tamburans, and the females Tamburetties. These ladies are married at the age of 10, but it would be scandalous for them to have any intercourse with their husbands. The Namburi Bramins, or the Nairs, are the fathers of their children, who are all, of course, in the dilemma described by Telemachus.

CALIF and CALIFATE. (See Caliph.) CALIFORNIA, Gulf of; a gulf on the west coast of North America, in Mexico, lying on the east side of the peninsula of California, extending from S. S. E. to N. N. W., between lat. 22° 40′ and 34° N. It is about 800 miles long, and, through most of its length, is less than 100 miles wide. It receives the river Colorado at its northern extremity. It contains numerous islands and shoals, and is of difficult navigation.

CALIFORNIA, New; a province of Mexico, on the coast of the N. Pacific ocean, called, by captain Vancouver, New Albion. It lies north of the peninsula, which is called Old California, and is 600 miles long, and only 30 broad. Square leagues, 2,125. Montery is the capital. There is not any country in the world which more abounds in fish and game of every de

scription. Hares, rabbits and stags are very common here; seals and otters are also found in prodigious numbers. To the northward, and during the winter, the inhabitants kill a very great number of foxes, bears, wolves and wildcats. The land possesses, also, great fertility; farinaceous roots and seeds of all kinds abundantly prosper here. The crops of maize, barley, corn and peas cannot be equalled but by those of Chili. European cultivators can have no conception of a similar fertility. The medium produce of corn is from 70 to 80 for 1; the extremes, 60 and 100. The population, in 1802, including Indians who had settled and begun to cultivate fields, was 15,562.

CALIFORNIA, Old; a province of Mexico, comprising a peninsula in the Pacific ocean, united, on the north, to the continent of North America, from which the other part is separated by a narrow sea, called the gulf of California, and bounded S. and W. by the Pacific ocean; near 900 miles in length, and, in different places, 30, 60, 90, and 120 miles wide. A chain of mountains extends through the peninsula, of which the greatest height is from 4500 to 4900 feet above the sea. This peninsula is said to have been discovered by sir Francis Drake, and by him called New Albion; and the gulf of California has been sometimes called the Vermilion sea, or Purple sea, or Red sea. In a peninsula of so great an extent, which reaches nearly from 23° to 34° N. lat., the soil and climate must naturally be found to vary. Some parts are continually covered with flowers, but the greater part is wild, rugged and barren, overrun with rocks and sand, and destitute of water. From cape St. Lucas to the Colorado, nearly 200 leagues, only two streams run into the gulf of California. Population, in 1803, 9000. The principal places are Santa Maria, St. Ignatio, St. Isidoro, Loreto, St. Estevan, St. Xavier, St. Yago, Rosalio, St. Juan Guadalupe and St. Joseph.

CALIGULA, Caius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, was born, A. D. 12, in the camp, probably in Germany, and brought up among the legions. Here he received, from the soldiers, the surname of C., on account of his wearing the caliga, a kind of little boots in use among them. He understood so well how to insinuate himself into the good graces of Tiberius, that he not only escaped the cruel fate of his parents and brothers and sisters, but was even loaded with honors. Whether, as some writers inform us, he removed Ti

berius out of the way by slow poison, is uncertain. When the latter was about to die, he appointed, according to Suetonius, C. and the son of Drusus, Tiberius Nero, heirs of the empire. But C., universally beloved for the sake of his father, Germanicus, was able, without difficulty, to obtain sole possession of the throne. Rome received him joyfully, and the distant provinces echoed his welcome. His first actions, also, were just and noble. He interred, in the most honorable manner, the remains of his mother and of his brother Nero, set free all state-prisoners, recalled the banished, and forbade all prosecutions for treason. He conferred on the magistrates free and independent power. Although the will of Tiberius had been declared, by the senate, to be null and void, he fulfilled every article of it, with the exception only of that abovementioned. When he was chosen consul, he took his uncle Claudius as his colleague. Thus he distinguished the first eight months of his reign by many magnanimous actions, when he fell sick. After his recovery, by a most unexpected alteration, he suddenly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants. The most exquisite tortures served him for enjoyments. During his meals, he caused criminals, and even innocent persons, to be stretched on the rack and beheaded: the most respectable persons were daily executed. In the madness of his arrogance, he even considered himself a god, and caused the honors to be paid to him which were paid to Apollo, to Mars, and even to Jupiter. He also showed himself in public with the attributes of Venus and of other goddesses. He built a temple to his own divinity. At one time, he wished that the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might be able to cut it off at one blow. He frequently repeated the words of an old poet, Oderint dum metuant. One of his greatest follies was the building of a bridge between Baiæ and Puteoli (Puzzuoli). He himself consecrated this strange structure with great splendor; and, after he had passed the night following in a revel with his friends, in order to do something extraordinary before his departure, he caused a crowd of persons, without distinction of age, rank and character, to be seized, and thrown into the sea. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, because, as he said, he had conquered nature herself. After. this, he made preparations for an expedition against the Germans, passed,

with more than 200,000 men, over the Rhine, but returned after he had travelled a few miles, and that without having seen an enemy. Such was his terror, that, when he came to the river, and found the bridge obstructed by the crowd upon it, he caused himself to be passed over the heads of the soldiers. He then went to Gaul, which he plundered with unexampled rapacity. Not content with the considerable booty thus obtained, he sold all the property of both his sisters, Agrippina and Livilla, whom he banished. He also sold the furniture of the old court, the clothes of Marcus Antoninus, of Augustus, Agrippina, &c. Before he left Gaul, he declared his intention of going to Britain. He collected his army on the coast, embarked in a magnificent galley, but returned when he had hardly left the land, drew up his forces, ordered the signal for battle to be sounded, and commanded the soldiers to fill their pockets and helmets with shells, while he cried out, "This booty, ravished from the sea, is fit for my palace and the capitol When he returned to Rome, he was desirous of a triumph on account of his achievements, but contented himself with an ovation. Discontented with the senate, he resolved to destroy the greater part of the members, and the most distinguished men of Rome. This is proved by two books, which were found after his death, wherein the names of the proscribed were noted down, and of which one was entitled Gladius (Sword), and the other Pugillus (Dagger). He became reconciled to the senate again when be found it worthy of him. He supported public brothels and gaming-houses, and received himself the entrance-money of the visitors. His horse, named Incitatus, was his favorite. This animal bad a house and a servant, and was fed from marble and gold. C. had caused him to be admitted into the college of his priests. and was desirous of making him a consul also. He even had the intention of destroying the poems of Homer, and was on the point of removing the works and images of Virgil and Livy from all libraries: those of the former, because he was destitute of genius and learning; those of the latter, because he was not to be depended upon as a historian. C.'s morals were, from his youth upward, corrupt: he had committed incest with all his sis ters. After he had married and repudiated several wives, Cæsonia retained a permanent hold on his affections. A number of conspirators, at the head of

whom were Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, both tribunes of the pretorian cohorts, murdered him in the 29th year of his life, and the fourth of his tyrannical reign (from A. D. 37 to 41).

Caliph (i. e., vicegerent) is the name assumed by the successors of Mohammed, in the government of the faithful and in the high priesthood. Caliphate is, therefore, the name given, by historians, to the empire of these princes which the Arabs founded in Asia, and, impelled by religious enthusiasm, enlarged, within a few centuries, to a dominion far superior in extent to the Roman empire. Mohammed (q. v.), in the character of the prophet of God, made himself the spiritual and temporal ruler of his people. After the death of the prophet, the election of a successor occasioned considerable excitement. Abdallah Ebn Abu Koafas, called Abubeker, i. e., father of the virgin (because his daughter Ayesha was the only one of the wives of Mohammed, whom he had married when a virgin), obtained the victory over Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, and became the first caliph, A. D. 632 (year of the Hegira 11). Victorious over all enemies, by the aid of his general, the brave Caled, he began, as the Koran directs, to spread the doctrines of Mohammed by arms among the neighboring nations. With the watch-word conversion or tribute, a numerous army, consisting entirely of volunteers, inspired with zeal for the holy war, penetrated first into Syria. Conquerors in the first battle, they were subsequently several times defeated by the Greeks; but, having once acquired a strong footing in the country by the treacherous surrender of Bosra, they undertook, under Caled, the siege of Damascus, and, having repulsed two large armies, sent by the emperor Heraclius to the relief of the city, they obtained possession of it by a capitulation (A. D. 633, of the Hegira 12), the terms of which were perfidiously broken, Caled pursuing and slaughtering the retreating Christians. Abubeker died after he had filled the place of the prophet two years and four months. By his will, Omar, another father-in-law of the prophet, became second caliph. He intrusted the command of the army of the faithful to the humane Obeidah, instead of Caled, and completed, by his means, though not without a brave resistance on the part of the Greeks, the subjugation of Syria (A. D. 638, of the Hegira 17). Jerusalem having been compelled to surrender (A. D. 636, Heg. 15), Omar proceeded thither in person to fix the terms of capit

ulation, which have subsequently served as a model in settling the relations of the Moslems to the subject Christians. These terms were carefully observed by the conscientious caliph. Equally successful was another general, Amrou, in Egypt, which was subjected to the caliphate in two years (640). Omar was the first who bore the appellation of emir al moumenin (prince of the faithful)—a title inherited by all succeeding caliphs, and perverted into miramolin by the ignorant Europeans. After the murder of Omar by a revengeful slave (A. D. 643, Heg. 23), a council, appointed by him on his death-bed, chose Osman, or Othman, son-in-law of the prophet, passing over Ali. Under him, the empire of the Arabs soon attained a wonderful magnitude. In the East, their arms spread the doctrines of the Koran through Persia. At the same time, they advanced along the northern coast of Africa, as far as Ceuta. Cyprus, too (A. D. 647), and Rhodes (A. D. 654) were conquered; but the former was lost again two years after. Thus Alexandria and all Egypt were a second time, though not without difficulty, torn from the Greeks, who had regained their power there by the aid of the natives. These reverses were caused by the measures of Othman, who, far inferior to Omar in wisdom, intrusted the provinces, not to the most capable, but to his favorites. The dissatisfaction thus excited occasioned a general insurrection in the year 654 (Heg. 34), which terminated in his death. Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet by Fatima, became the fourth caliph, by the choice of the people of Medina, and is regarded as the first legitimate possessor of the dignity, by a numerous sect of Mohammedans, which gives him and his son Hassan almost equal honor with the prophet. This belief prevails among the Persians; whence arises the hatred in which they are held by the Turks. Instead of being able to continue the conquests of his predecessors, Ali always had to contend with domestic enemies. Among these was Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, called the mother of the faithful; also Tellah, Zobeir, and especially the powerful Moawiyah, governor of Syria, who all laid claim to the government. These were able to create suspicion, and spread the report that Ali had instigated the murder of Othman. In vain did he endeavor to repress the machinations of his enemies, by intrusting the government of the provinces to his friends. Nowhere were the new governors received. The discontented

collected an army, and made themselves masters of Bassora. Ali defeated it, and Tellah and Zobeir fell; but he could not prevent Moawiyah and his friend Amrou from extending their party, and maintaining themselves in Syria, Egypt, and even in a part of Arabia. Three men of the sect of the Khoregites proposed to restore concord among the faithful, by slaying each one of the three heads of the parties, Ali, Moawiyah and Amrou; but Ali only fell (A. D. 660, Heg. 40). He was a man of a cultivated mind. The celebrated moral maxims, and the Giafa, as it was termed, are the most famous of his works. His son, the mild, peaceful Hassan, had no desire to defend the caliphate against the indefatigable Moawiyah; but vainly did he hope to obtain security by a solemn abdication of the government. He perished by poison, said to have been administered at the instigation of Moawiyah. Moawiyah I transferred the seat of the caliphate from the city of the prophet, Medina, where it had hitherto always been, to Damascus, in the province of which he had formerly been governor (A. D. 673, Heg. 54). With him begins the series of the caliphis called Ommiades, which name this family bore from Moawiyah's progenitor, Ommiyah. Not long after his accession, he was obliged to quell an insurrection of the Khoregites by a campaign, and a rebellion at Bassora by severe punishments. He then seriously meditated the entire subversion of the Byzantine empire. (q. v.) His son Jezid marched through Asia Minor, meeting but little resistance; then crossed the Hellespont, and laid siege to Constantinople, but was obliged to raise it (A. D. 669, Heg. 49). His general Obeidah was more successful against the Turks in Chorasan: he defeated them, and penetrated almost into Turkestan (A. D. 673, Heg. 54). His son Jezid was not altogether a worthy successor of the politic Moawiyah (A. D. 679, Heg. 60). At first, he was not acknowledged by the two holy cities, Mecca and Medina, which, as long as the caliphs had resided in the latter city, had enjoyed a principal voice in their election, but which had not been consulted when Moawiyah, according to the custom of the caliphs, appointed his successor in his life-time. The discontented espoused the cause, either of Houssain, the famous son of Ali, or of Abdallah, Zobeir's son, both of whom laid claim to the crown. A rebellion of the inhabitants of Irak, in favor of Houssain, led by Moslem and Hanni, was suppressed by

the prudence and decision of Obeidallah, governor of Cufa; and Houssain, who had accepted the invitation of the conspirators, was killed (A. D. 680, Heg. 61), to the great dissatisfaction of the caliph, who sought to make reparation by acts of beneficence towards the children of Houssain. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir was recog nised as caliph in Medina, where Jezul was detested for his voluptuousness and scepticism. On this account, Medina was invested, stormed and sacked; but Hous sain's family, residing there, was spared, at the express command of the calipn. After Jezid's death (A. D. 683, Heg. 64, his son, Moawiyah II, a pious youth of the sect of the Motagelites (who rejected the fanaticism of the other Mohanimedans), voluntarily resigned the caliphate, after a reign of a few months. As he had chosen no successor, anarchy prevailed. Obeidallah, governor of Irak, sought to found a distinct empire in Bassora, but was soon driven out by the inhabitants themselves, who now, as well as all Irak, Hegiaz, Yemen and Egypt, acknowledged Abdallah Ebn Zobeir as caliph. In Syria, Dehac, regent to Abdallah, was at first chosen caliph; but the people of Dainascus appointed Merwan I, of the race of the Ommiades, caliph, who made himself master of all Syria and Egypt. Chorasan separated from the caliphate, and submit ted to a prince of its own choosing-the noble Salem. In the following year (A. D. 684, Heg. 65), Soliman Ebn Sarad excited a great rebellion of the discontented in Syria and Arabia, and pronounced both caliphs deposed, but was defeated by the experienced soldier Obeidallah. Merwan had been compelled to promise, on oath, to leave the caliphate to Caled, the son of Jezid; yet he nominated his son Abdalmelek as his successor. Under him (A. D. 684, Heg. 65), Mokthar, a new rebel against both caliphs, was subdued by one of them, Abdallah (A. D 686, Heg. 67 but this only made Abdallah more formi dable to Abdalmelek, who, in order to be able to direct all his forces against him, concluded a peace with the Greek empe ror, Justinian II, in which, reversing the order of the Koran, he conceded to the Christians a yearly tribute of 50,000 pieces of gold. He then marched against Ab dallah, defeated him twice, and took Mecca by assault. In this last conflict, Abdallah fell. Thus he united under his dominion all the Mussulmans; but the resistance of the governors the curse of all despotisms, and the symptom of the future dissolution of the caliphate-kept

him constantly occupied. He was the first caliph that caused money to be coined. He died A. D. 705 (Heg. 86). Under Walid I, his son, the Arabs conquered, in the East, Charasm and Turkestan (A. D. 707, Heg. 88); in the North, Galatia (A. D. 710); and, in the West, Spain (A. D.711). (See Spain). He died in 716 (Heg. 97). His brother and successor besieged Constantinople, but his fleet was twice destroyed by tempests and the Greek fire. On the other hand, he conquered Georgia. He died 718 (Heg. 99). Omar II, his successor by Soliman's last will, incurred the displeasure of the Ommiades by his indulgence towards the sect of Ali, and was poisoned by them (A. D. 721, Heg. 102). Jezid II, his successor, also, by the disposition of Soliman, died of grief for the loss of a female favorite, of whose death he was the author (A. D. 723, Heg. 104.) The Alide Zeid, grandson of Houssain, now contested the caliphate with his brother Hescham. He was indeed overpowered, and put to death; but another house, the Abbassides, descendants of Abbas, son of Abdalmotaleh, uncle of the prophet, began to be formidable. Under Hescham, an end was put to the progress of the Saracens in the West, by the energy of Charles Martel, who annihilated their armies at Tours in 732, and at Narbonne in 736. The voluptuous Walid II was murdered after a reign of one year (A. D. 743, Heg. 124). After the equally brief reigns of Jezid III, and of the Abbasside, Ibrahim, Merwan II followed, with the surname (respectable among the Arabs) of the Ass (al Hemar). Ibrahim, being dethroned and imprisoned by this prince, appointed his brother Abul Abbas his successor, and was, shortly after, murdered in prison. Abdallah, Abul Abbas's uncle, now took up arms against the caliph, who was, at that time, fully occupied by a dangerous rebellion in Persia. Merwan was twice defeated, and fell (A. D. 752, Heg. 133). With him terminates the series of caliphs of the race of Ommiyah. The furious Abdallah treacherously destroyed almost all the Ommiades, by a horrible massacre at a meeting where they were all assembled. Two only escaped. Abderames fled to Spain, where he founded the independent caliphate of Cordova (see Spain); another to a corner of Arabia, where he was acknowledged as caliph, and his posterity reigned till the 16th century. Abul Abbas, although innocent of that cruel action, which secured him the throne, derived from it the name of Saffah (the Bloody). He died very soon, 18 years

of age, of the small-pox (A. D. 753, Heg. 134). His brother, Abu Giafar, called al Mansor (the Victorious), was obliged to contend with a rival in his own uncle, Abdallah, whom he, however, overcame. His avarice made him many enemies, whom he succeeded in suppressing by his perfidious cunning. He acquired his surname by his victories in Armenia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. In the year 764 (Heg. 145), he founded the city of Bagdad on the Tigris, and transferred thither the seat of the caliphate (A. D. 768, Heg. 149). He died on a pilgrimage to Mecca, leaving immense treasures (A. D. 775, Heg. 156). Mahadi, his son and successor, a man of a noble character, had to contend with the turbulent inhabitants of Chorasan, under the pretended prophet Hakem, and died A. D. 785 (Heg. 166); and Hadi, his grandson, met with the same opposition from the Ali party, under Houssain, Ali's great-grandson. Hadi caused the Zendists to be exterminated-a sect adhering to the doctrine of two principles of nature. According to the usual order of succession, and Mahadi's provision, Hadi was followed, not by his son, but by his brother Harun (A. D. 786, Heg. 167), who was denominated al Raschid, on account of his justice, and is famous for promoting the arts and sciences. He concluded a truce (an actual peace could never be made with Christians) with the Greek empress Irene (788, Heg. 169), who consented to pay him tribute. Jahir, an Alide, disputed with him the possession of the throne, but subsequently submitted. run, however, tarnished his reputation by the murder of Jahir, and still more by the murder of his sister Abbassah, and her favorite, the Barmecide Giafar, and by the expulsion and persecution of the whole family of the Barmecides, whose services to the state and himself had been of very great value. Harun divided the empire among his three sons. Al Amin, as sole caliphi, was to reign over Irak, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and the rest of Africa: under him, Al Mamun was to govern Persia, Turkestan, Chorasan, and the whole East; and Motassem was to rule Asia Minor, Armenia, and all the countries on the Black sea. brothers were to succeed Amin in the caliphate. At Thus, in Chorasan, through which Harun was passing, in order to quell a rebellion that had broken out in Samarcand, he was arrested by death, of which he had been forewarned by wonderful dreams (A. D. 809, Heg. 190). Al Amin the Faithful (his proper name was

Ha

The younger