sions of the power of C. The senate, however, frustrated their designs, and C. retained the dictatorship. Rome was rebuilt. The Equi, Volsci, the Etruscans, and even the Latins, united against Rome. C., for the third time dictator, armed the whole people, came to the assistance of the military tribunes, who were surrounded, fired the enemy's camp, and gave the plunder to his soldiers. He then took Bole, the chief city of the Æqui, defeated the Volsci, and compelled the Etruscans to retreat. He now triumphed for the third time, restored, from the booty, to the Roman ladies, what they had formerly contributed to the accomplishment of his vow, and retired into a private station. Soon after, when the inhabitants of Antium attacked Rome, he was appointed military tribune, obtained from his colleagues the chief command, and took severe vengeance on the enemy. His glory excited the jealousy of Manlius. The senate, alarmed, once more raised C. to the military tribuneship. Manlius was overcome; but the people, who had at first rejoiced at his condemnation, soon felt repentance. It was resolved to attack the Prænestines, allies of the Volsci. C. was obliged, notwithstanding his age, to take the chief command. It appeared to him hazardous to venture a battle; but Lucius Furius, his colleague, pressed him to attack the enemy. C. allowed him to direct the engagement, and confined himself to the command of the reserve. The troops under the command of Furius being thrown into disorder, C. came up, and prevented a total defeat. On the day following, he obtained a complete victory, being nobly supported by his colleague. The inhabitants of Tusculum, against whom he then advanced, surrendered without resistance, and obtained the friendship of Rome, which they had lost by their own fault. C. was appointed dictator, for the fourth time, on account of the disturbances excited by Licinius and Sextus, the tribunes of the people; but he soon resigned the power which he was obliged to employ against Romans, and not against enemies. He was already 80 years old, when the appearance of a new army of Gauls terrified Rome. He once more resumed the dictatorship, attacked the Gauls, dispersed them entirely, and obtained again the honor of a triumph. As new disturbances had broken out, C. did not lay down his office till the ferment was quelled. After this, he caused a temple to Concord to be built near the capitol, retired from public life, and

died soon after, B. C. 365, of the plague, greatly lamented by the Romans.

CAMISARDS; Calvinists in France (in the Cevennes), who, in the beginning of the 18th century, opposed the oppressive proceedings of the royal deputies. The collectors of taxes were attacked by night by the malcontents (who, to disguise themselves, appeared only in their shirts— whence their name), dragged out of bed, and hung, with the tax-rolls about their necks. The government sent troops to punish the authors of these acts. A certain John Cavalier, a peasant, whom a fortuneteller had pointed out as the deliverer of Israel, placed himself at the head of the Camisards. His unlimited authority with his adherents, and his talents and courage, enabled him to oppose the measures of experienced generals with so much success, that negotiation was substituted for force. The marshal Villars made a treaty with Cavalier, which conceded to the party all their demands, and by virtue of which Cavalier himself was received into the royal service as a colonel. Sickness subsequently induced him to leave France, and he went to England, where queen Anne gave him a favorable reception. Voltaire, who became acquainted with him in London, speaks of him in high terms. At the time of his death, Cavalier was general and governor of Jersey.

CAMLET, or CAMBLET (in French, camelot; Italian, camellato); a fine stuff, composed of a warp and woof, and manufactured on a loom with two treddles, so called because originally made of camels' hair only. Camlets are of different kinds, as goats-hair, wool, silk camlets.

CAMMA; a river, and a kingdom, in Africa: the former divides Benin from Loango, and runs into the Atlantic; lat. 1° 40′ S.: the latter is near the river.

CAMENE, a name often given to the Muses. Properly, Camana was synonymous with Carmenta, a prophetess, whom the oldest colony that settled in Latium, under Evander, brought with them out of Arcadia; therefore tradition calls her his mother. Others mention two Carmente as looking into the past and future

goddesses of fate, who afterwards became goddesses of birth. Numa conse crated to the Camœnæ a fountain and grove, and, from that circumstance, they became confounded with the Muses.

CAMOENS, Louis de; the most celebrated poet of the Portuguese; one of the great men whose merit was first apparent to after time, while their own age suffered them to starve. He was born at Lisbon,

probably in 1524; for it appears, from a catalogue of persons embarking for the East Indies in 1550, that C., whose age is there given at 25 years, offered himself as a volunteer for the campaign. His father, Simon Vaz de C., was a ship-captain, and perished, by shipwreck, on the coast of Goa, in 1556. C. studied at Coimbra. At that time, writers were esteemed in proportion as they imitated the ancients. C. was inspired by the history of his country, and by the manners of his age. His lyric poems, like the works of Dante, Petrarch, Ariosto and Tasso, belong to the literature formed under the influence of Christianity. After the completion of his studies, he returned to Lisbon, where he fell deeply in love with a lady of the palace, Catharine d'Attayde. Violent passions are often joined with great talents: C. had both. He was exiled to Santarem, on account of disputes in which his love for Catharine involved him. From despair, he became a soldier, and served in the fleet which the Portuguese sent against Morocco. He composed poetry in the midst of battles; and, as danger kindled his genius, so genius animated his courage. An arrow deprived him of his right eye before Ceuta. He hoped that his wounds would receive a recompense, though his talents were not appreciated; but envy opposed his claims. Full of indignation at seeing himself neglected, he embarked, in 1553, for India. He landed at Goa. His powerful imagination was excited by the heroic deeds of his countrymen in this quarter; and, although he had much reason to complain of them, he could not resist the desire of celebrating their glory in an epic. But this vivacity of mind, essential to the poet, is not easily united with the moderation which a dependent condition demands. C. was displeased with the abuses of the government in India, and wrote a satire, which caused his banishment to Macao. Here he lived several years in no other society than that of nature, which showered round him in abundance all the charms of the East. Here, too, he composed his Lusiad. Vasco da Gama's expedition to India is the subject of the poem. The parts of it which are best known are the episode of Ines de Castro, and the appearance of Adamastor, who, by means of his power over the storms, aims to stop Gama's voyage, when he is about to double the Cape. In conformity to the taste of the time, C. united, in this poem, a narrative of the Portuguese his

tory with the splendor of poetic description, and Christianity with mythological fables. He pleased himself with tracing the descent of the Portuguese from the Romans, of whom Mars and Venus are considered the progenitors and protectors. Since fable ascribes to Bacchus the first conquest of India, it was natural to represent him as jealous of the undertaking of the Portuguese. If the imitation of the works of classical antiquity has been of any disadvantage to the Lusiad, the injury consists, perhaps, in a diminution of the originality which one expects in a work in which India and Africa are described by an eye-witness. The versification of the Lusiad has something s charming and splendid, that not only cultivated minds, but even the common people, are enraptured by its magic, and learn by heart and sing its beautiful stanzas The general interest of the poem consists principally in the patriotic feeling which pervades it. The national glory of the Portuguese appears here in every form which invention can lend to it; and therefore the countrymen of C. must naturally admire this poem more than foreigners. Some critics pronounce the Lusiad a more powerful and pure historical painting than Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. C. was at last recalled from his banishment. At the mouth of the river Mecon, in Cochin-China, he was shipwrecked, and saved himself by swimming; holding in one hand, above the water, the manuscript of his poem, the only treasure which he rescued from the waves, and which was dearer to him than life. In Goa, he encountered new persecutions: he was confined in prison for debt, and was not allowed, until his friends became responsible for him, to embark and return to Lisbon in 1569. King Sebastian, yet hardly past the age of childhood, took an interest in C. He accepted the dedication of his epic (which appeared in 1572), and, being on the point of embarking on his expedition against the Moors in Africa, he felt, more sensibly than others, the genius of the poet, who, like him, loved dangers if they led to glory. But Sebastian was killed in a battle before Alcaçar, in 1578. With him the royal family became extinct, and Portugal lost her independence. Every source of assistance, as well as every hope of C., was destroyed by this event. So great was his poverty, that, at night, a slave, whom he had brought with him from India, begged in the streets, in order to support the life of his master. In this misery, he

yet wrote lyric poems, some of which contain the most moving complaints. This hero of Portuguese literature, the ornament of his country and of Europe, died, at last, in 1579, in the hospital at Lisbon, in the 62d year of his age. 15 years afterwards, a splendid monument was erected to his memory.-The best edition of the Lusiad (Os Lusíadas, etc.) was published by Jose Maria de SouzaBotelho (Paris, 1807, by Didot, small folio). The best French translation, with notes, is Les Lusiades, ou les Portugais, etc., by J. B. F. Millié (Paris, 1825, 2 vols.) The works of C., besides the Lusiad, consist of sonnets, songs, odes, elegies, eclogues, redondillas, epigrams, satires, letters, and two comedies (Amphitryon, after Plautus, and the Love of Philodemus).(See the article Portuguese Language and Literature.) John Adamson's Memoirs of the Life and Writings of L. de Camoens (London, 1820, 2 vols.), of which the 2d volume contains a criticism on his works, are valuable. See, also, madame de Staël's article respecting him in the Biographie Universelle (6th vol.).

CAMOMILE (anthemis nobilis) is a wellknown plant, the dried, daisy-like flowers of which are frequently used in medicine. The principal use, for which camomile flowers are applied, is to excite vomiting, and promote the operation of emetics. They have likewise been substituted for Peruvian bark, in the case of intermittent fevers or agues, particularly on the continent of Europe, but not with much success. Both the leaves and flowers are employed in fomentations and poultices. They each, but particularly the flowers, have a powerful, though not unpleasant smell, and a bitter taste. They are administered in substance, as a powder or electuary; in infusion, as tea; in decoction or extract, or in the form of an essential oil, obtained by distillation. So fragrant is the camomile plant, that the places where it grows wild, on open, gravelly commons, may easily be discovered by the somewhat strawberry-like perfume which is emitted by treading on them. This quality has sometimes induced the cultivation of camomile for a green walk in gardens.

CAMP means, generally, the place and order of tents or huts for soldiers in the field. In modern times, a difference is made between camp and bivouac, the former signifying the residence of an army resting in tents; the latter, the situation of one which dispenses with them, and remains either entirely in the open

air, or, where time allows it, in huts built of branches, &c. (See Bivouac.) On the continent of Europe, tents are abolished, and the name of camp, therefore, is seldom used there at present.-Camps, of course, are of very ancient origin, since almost all nations, in their infancy, lived as nomades, dwelling in tents; as is the case with many tribes in Asia and Africa at the present day, e. g., the Arabs. The Romans, probably, first carried the art of encampment to a high degree of perfection, on account of their many wars in distant and thinly settled regions, where their large armies found no cities to quarter in. Cæsar and several other Roman authors give us much information on their way of constructing a camp, which they improved in strength and convenience, according to the time that they were stationed in it, and which, at the same time, the want of fortresses obliged them to make, in some cases, the points of their military operations. From such camps, it is well known, many cities originated, as Cologne on the Rhine, Treves, Cambridge, Bristol, and many others. It is a fact of much interest, that the military art, after so many changes in tactics, and in the principles of strategy, again resorts to something similar to these fortified camps of the ancients, as, in very recent times, it has been thought advisable, besides providing fortresses, properly so called, to strengthen certain large cities on the chief roads, partly in order to defend them against the first attack of the enemy, and to prevent his possessing himself easily of the important resources which they afford, but chiefly to give to retreating armies rallying points, able to furnish support to numerous soldiers. They are also points of assembly for the militia. Thus the Prussians fortified the large city of Cologne. Of all the European armies, the English are the only ones, we believe, who make use of tents, and therefore have camps, in the narrower sense of the word. It is to be observed, that camps have become slighter and simpler with the progress of the military art. The camps of the Turks, or other Asiatic nations, are extremely cumbersome, in comparison with the light bivouac of the Europeans, from which, at any moment, the whole army can rise in arms, prepared for battle.

CAMPAGNA DI ROMA; a territory in Italy, which comprehends the greater part of old Latium, about 70 miles wide and 230 long. We usually understand by it the desert plain which commences

near Ronciglione or Viterbo, and, including the Pontine marshes (q. v.), extends to Terracina. In the middle of this region lies, half deserted, the ancient capital of the world. The lakes of the C. are evidently craters of extinct volcanoes. Thus the lake Regillus, above Frascati, lies at the bottom of an inverted cone of hard, black lava, rising in wild and naked masses from 40 to 60 feet high. The craters containing the lakes of Albano and Nemi, which lie from 400 to 500 feet higher than the lake Regillus, have a very regular conical form, The lake of Albano is also remarkable for its aqueduct, or emissarium, one of the most ancient and excellent works of the Romans, which discharges the waters of the lake through the mountains. It was cut through the lava, in a year, by the command of an oracle, during the siege of Veii, when the lake threatened to inundate even Rome. (See Albano.) It answers its original purpose even at the present day. There are, also, many sulphur springs here, particularly between Rome and Tivoli, where the water issues almost boiling from the earth, and forms the lake of Solfatara, which contains floating islands, consisting of a calcarious deposit, which collects round substances thrown into the water. The water of the river, which issues from this lake, has the same qualities, and was considered, by the ancients, as particularly salutary. Near the lake were the baths of M. Agrippa. The soil of the C. is, in gen eral, dry, but very fertile in the lower parts, though its cultivation is much neglected. From Monterosi to the hills of Albano, a tree is seldom to be seen. All the efforts of the French to diminish the malignity of the mal' aria in these regions, by planting trees, have been unsuccessful, There are no villages and towns in the C. Here and there you find single huts leaning against the ruins of old towers or temples, and patched up from their fragments. In the middle of the summer, when malignant fevers render a residence in the C. very dangerous, the unhappy inhabitants are obliged to take refuge in the neighboring towns, or in Rome, where they seek shelter under the porticoes of the churches and palaces. The great number of sick persons who fill the Roman hospitals during the mouths of July, August and September, are chiefly inhabitants of the country. Besides their huts, innumerable ruins of temples, circuses and monuments are scattered about C., particularly near the Via Appia; and

long rows of aqueducts, some in ruins, some in a state of preservation, are overgrown with ivy and other plants. In the winter, flocks of sheep pasture in these solitudes; during the summer, they are driven up the Apennines. Herds of halfwild cattle remain during the whole year in the C. Their keepers, however, soon become a prey to the pestilence, or fall into a gradual decline. They are mostly natives of the mountains, and serve the proprietors of the herds for trifling wages. Bonstetten saw at Torre Paterno, very near Rome, a herd of several hundred cows, the proprietors of which did not consider it worth while to milk them, though milk is as dear in Rome as in other large cities. The herdsmen are mounted, and armed with long lances, with which they manage the cattle very skilfully. Scarcely a ninth part of the C. is cultivated; the rest is used for pasturage. In the times of the ancient Romans, this dreary solitude exhibited a smiling picture of abundance and fertility. Cornfields, groves, villas, monuments, ahernated with each other, and, according to the accounts of Strabo, Varro and Pliny, the air was remarkably healthy, with the exception of a few marshy tracts along the coasts. The corruption of the ch mate originated as early as the 6th century, according to tradition, after some great inundations of the Tiber; which, however, still take place, without increas ing the evil. The unhealthy air, the fainous aria cattiva, is most injurious in the dry and hot seasons. The most probable supposition is, that it originated after the devastations of the barbarians, when the waters became stagnant from the want of human industry. The greatest obstacle to the removal of the evil is in the prejudices and indolence of the people. Thus the corruption is continually spreading, and has even attacked some quarters of Rome.

CAMPAIGN generally denotes the season during which armies keep the field. It also means an extensive level country. Formerly, when war was not carried on with so much impetuosity as at present, campaigns lasted only during the warmer months; and, towards winter, the troops went into winter-quarters, when the of ficers of the opposing armies often met very amicably at balls and other entertainments; but, of late, armies have kept the field through the winter, till a decisive victory has been gained. Thus the allies, in the winter of 1813-14, followed the French over the Rhine; some battles

were fought in January and February, and the armies remained, for several months, without roof or tent, in the open air of a cold winter.

CAMPAN, Jeanne Louise Henriette (originally Genet), born at Paris, Oct. 6, 1752, became reader to the daughters of Louis XV; gained the favor of the wife of the dauphin, afterwards the queen Marie Antoinette, who gave her in marriage to the son of her private secretary, M. Campan, and appointed her the first lady of the bed-chamber. Madame C. gave her patroness many proofs of fidelity and attachment, and wished to follow her into the Temple after the 10th of Aug., 1792, which, however, Pethion did not allow. After the fall of Robespierre, madame C. established a boarding-school for the education of young ladies at St. Germain, which soon acquired a wide reputation. On this account, Napoleon appointed her the principal of an institution founded by him for the daughters of the officers of the legion of honor, at Ecouen, which she organized and superintended for seven years. After the restoration, Louis XVIII abolished this institution, and madame C. lost her situation. Her only son died in 1821, in consequence of ill treatment suffered because he was a relation of marshal Ney. Madame C. died at Paris, March 10, 1822. Of her Memoirs respecting the Private Life of the Queen Marie Antoinette, with Recollections of the Times of Louis XIV, XV, and XVI, in 4 vols. (translated into English, 1823), the fifth edition appeared at Paris, 1823. They contain interesting contributions to the history of the French revolution. Her Journal Anecdotique, also (Paris, 1824), is rich in piquant anecdotes of Napoleon, Alexander I, and others.

CAMPANELLA, Thomas; a native of Calabria, in Italy, famous for his talents and misfortunes. He displayed great quickness of parts when quite young, and, at the age of 15, entered into the order of the Dominicans. He studied theology and other branches of knowledge with assiduity, but was principally attracted by philosophy. The opinions of Aristotle, then generally taught in the schools, appeared to him unsatisfactory; and, in 1591, he published, at Naples, a work, entitled Philosophia Sensibus demonstrata, intended to show the futility of the prevailing doctrines. This book procured him some admirers, and more enemies. He then went to Rome, and afterwards to Florence, where he was well received by the grand-duke Ferdinand; but, not

obtaining some preferment which he expected, he proceeded to Bologna, and then to Padua, where he gave lectures on philosophy. In 1598, he returned to Naples, and revisited, shortly after, Calabria, where, in the following year, he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, to which Naples was then subject. A scheme was imputed to him of having engaged the Turks to assist him in making himself master of Calabria. On this improbable and apparently unfounded accusation, he was imprisoned, and, after being repeatedly tortured, condemned to perpetual confinement. In this situation, he wrote many learned works, afterwards published. At length, in 1626, pope Urban VIII procured his removal to Rome, and, in 1629, gave him his liberty, and bestowed on him a pension. Dreading some further persecution from the Spaniards, he withdrew, in 1634, to France, where he was honorably received, and much esteemed by the learned men of that country. He died at Paris in 1639.-C. was a man of more imagination than judgment, displaying his talents rather by undermining the systems of others than by establishing his own. He was a believer in astrology, one of the follies of the age; and some of his opinions were very eccentric. His works are extremely numerous.

CAMPANIA; the ancient name of a province of Italy, in the present kingdom of Naples, which, partly on account of its natural curiosities, including Vesuvius, the Phlegræan fields, the lake of Avernus, and partly for its remarkable fertility, was a favorite resort of the distinguished Romans, who built there magnificent country-houses. Cuma, Puteoli, Naples, Her-, culaneum, Pompeii, Capreæ, Salernum and Capua, the principal cities of C., are names rich in classical associations. The Appian and Latin ways led into the interior of this charming province. Even now, C., or Terra di Lavoro, is the most beautiful and fruitful part of Italy; and no traveller can wish for a more delightful country than the fields of C., filled, in the month of April, with barley four feet high, and adorned with lofty poplars, which are connected by luxuriant vines, forming a canopy over the fields. "There," says Göthe, "it is worth while to till the ground."

CAMPANILE; a detached tower, in some parts of Italy, erected for the purpose of containing bells. Several of them have deviated considerably from the perpen