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tached. This vessel was carried, for a short time, into Calismene, a harbor of Candia, without, however, the consent of the Venetians, who had no garrison there. The sultan was highly incensed, ascribed all the fault to the Venetians, and landed a large force in Candia, in June 1645, which soon took Canea and Retimo, and besieged the capital with vigor. The attack was bravely repelled, but repeated in 1649; and was this time also unsuccessful. In 1656, the Turks made a third effort, but afterwards changed the siege into a blockade, which they continued for 10 years without success, since the Venetians, being masters of the sea, supplied the fortress, without difficulty, with provisions, men and ammunition. In 1667, after the peace of Vasvar, the grand vizier, Kiopurli, in order to restore his reputation, which had been tarnished by the loss of the battle of St. Gothard, and to regain the favor of Mohammed IV by an important conquest, took vigorous measures for the entire reduction of Candia, investing the capital, May 14th, with 80,000 men. A wall with 7 bastions surrounded the fortress; the same number of ravelins were situated in front of the wall, and several detached works still farther in advance: a numerous fleet held the Turks in check by sea, and the garrison, commanded by the chevalier de Ville and Morosini, was ready to be buried under the ruins of the fortress. The attack of the Turks was directed against the bastion called Panigra. The Christians contested every step of their advance; but the Turks were soon at the foot of a breach, which was, however, so well defended by mines, sallies, and intrenchments, that the most furious assaults, directed by Kiopurli in person, who feared the displeasure of his master, were without success. The winter found the Turks still before the breach, and compelled them to withdraw to their intrenchments. The natives of the East, unaccustomed to a winter campaign, were carried off by sickness; and new masses of troops, with all the materials for a siege, supplied the loss. Changes occurred also in the fortress. In the spring of 1668, the brave chevalier de Ville was recalled, on account of the jealousy of his superiors, and a quarrel with Morosini. His place, however, was well supplied by the chevalier St. André Montbrun. Volunteers, likewise, poured in from all the countries of Europe, to display their courage on so bloody a field, and to learn the art of war. Numerous engineers made the place their school, and Werthmüller,

Rimpler and Vauban were together here. The pope sent troops and money; the Maltese, knights and soldiers. The duke de la Feuillade led hither 600 Frenchmen, some of them of the noblest families, who, with French thoughtlessness, rushed into needless danger, and were, for the most part, destroyed. The count of Waldeck subsequently came with 3 regiments of Lüneberg troops, so that the garrison was always kept from 8000 to 10,000 strong. Treachery had given the Turks information that the bastions of St. André and Sabionetta were the weakest points of the fortress: they therefore altered their plan, and attacked the lasmentioned works. Departing from the line of operations which they had hitherto followed, they approached the fortress by employing a great number of men in dig ging a deep ditch, throwing up the earth towards the place, and continuing to move it forward with shovels, till they reached and filled the trench. Daring sallies and well-applied mines, however, kept the Turks in check for a long time, and often destroyed their works; but, having finally succeeded in establishing themselves on the bastion of St. André, they found be yond it strong intrenchments, which withstood the most violent assaults; and the approach of winter found the besiegers no farther advanced. In the spring of 1669, the Turks pursued their labors slowly, but surely and successfully. In a short time, nothing but a heap of earth and stones remained to the Venetians of the bastion of St. André, and their last defence was a wall, thrown up during the winter, as a general intrenchment. In this extremity, the dukes of Beaufort and Navailles appeared with a French fleet and 7000 troops. A desperate sally was undertaken with this new reinforcement A mine, which was to serve as a signal, and throw the Turks into confusion, did not explode: on the contrary, a Turkish powder-magazine blew up when the French had already got possession of the trenches, and repelled an attempt of the Turks to recover them. This explosion filled the French with such a fear of concealed mines, that they fled in disorder to the fortress, and left 200 men dead on the field, among whom were many brave officers, and the duke of Beaufort. At the same time, the Christian fleet, consisting of 80 ships and 50 galleys, which were to attack the Turkish camp in the flank, was thrown into disorder by the batteries on the coast, and the blowing up of a ship of 70 guns, and the sally was entirely un

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successful. This misfortune increased the discord which already existed to such a degree, that the duke of Navailles, convinced that the preservation of the fortress was impossible, re-embarked his corps, and returned to France. Individuals belonging to the other troops joined the French; the Maltese, and almost all the volunteers, also, departed shortly after; a new assault of the Turks was more successful than the previous ones, and brought them to the palisades of the last intrenchment; the garrison, amounting to scarcely 3000 men, was desponding and disobedient; quarrels distracted the commanders, and every thing announced that the place must fall at the next assault. It was resolved, therefore, in a council of war, to surrender. The terms of capitulation gave the garrison and inhabitants liberty to depart within 12 days, and to take with them all their property, even the artillery which had been introduced into the city during the siege, and left the Venetians in possession of Suda, Garabusa and Spinalonga. Sept. 27, 1669, the city was surrendered, after a war of 25 years, a blockade of 13 years, and a siege, in which the trenches had been open 2 years 3 months and 27 days. Its defence must serve as a model to the latest ages, as one of the bravest recorded in history, and proves what Christian courage could effect against Turkish fury and superiority of numbers, even at a time when the European art of war was imperfect, and the Turkish empire was at the zenith of its prosperity. At the time of the capitulation, the garrison consisted of only 2500 soldiers. 30,985 Christians and 118,754 Turks were killed or wounded during the siege; 56 assaults were made by the Turks; 96 sallies by the Christians; 472 mines were sprung by the former, 1173 by the latter; 509,692 cannon shot were fired by the fortress, and 180,000 cwt. of lead used for musket balls by the Christians. The Turks found the city in a ruinous state; every thing of any value was taken away; only 33 men, for the most part far advanced in years, remained behind, and 350 miserable cannon stood on the walls. The Turks immediately repaired all the works. Having obtained possession of the capital, they now endeavored to expel the Venetians from the strong holds which remained to them on the island; and, before the expiration of the 17th century,Garabusa fell into their power by treachery, and Suda and Spinalonga by surrender. They managed Candia in the usual manner. Three pachas, at Candia,

Canea and Retimo, governed the island. On account of the feuds of these pachas, the inhabitants of the western mountains succeeded in forming a government of their own, under Turkish protection, in the agalic of Sphachia. As the compacts made with them were not always observed, they were wont, in such cases, to take up arms, were often defeated, but never entirely subdued. The pachas having demanded hostages of them in 1821, they joined the Greek insurgents. Even under the Venetian government, the Candiotes had the reputation of suffering no infringement of their privileges, and would not permit the Venetians to establish, as in the other districts of Greece, a nobility, degli possidenti, by whose means they might hold the other inhabitants under the yoke of the podestas. Had the mountaineers been armed, when the Turks made their first descent on the island, it would probably have been impossible for the invaders to have maintained themselves in Candia. The Sphachiotes have played the same part in Candia as the Mainotes in the Morea, excepting that they have not escaped the tribute of the poll-tax. The energy of the inhabitants seems to be now relaxed. (See Greek Insurrection.) The historical importance of ancient Crete, in a mythological point of view, and as a seat of ancient civilization, is shown by Höck's Kreta (Gött., 1823). In 1817, F. W. Sieber, a German physician, penetrated far into Crete, and made many observations on it, which had principally in view the improvement of natural history and medical science. See his Reise nach der Insel Kreta-Voyage to the Island of Crete (Leips. 1823), 2 vols. with plates and a map.

CANDIDATE (from the Latin candidatus, white-robed, because, among the Romans, a man who solicited an office appeared in a shining white garment-toga candida). The candidati of the Romans wore no tunic; either as a sign of humility, or in order to show the wounds received on their breasts. The time of their canvassing was two years, during which they wore the toga candida. In the first year, they delivered speeches to the people, or had them delivered by others, with the consent of the magistrates. This was called profiteri nomen suum, and the year, annus professionis. After this year, they requested the magistrate to enter their names on the list of candidates for the office sought for. An aspirant was seldom refused permission to deliver his speeches; but he was not yet necessarily treated as a candidate by the magistrates,

or proposed by them to the people on the day of election. Before that was done, his life was subjected to a scrutiny in the senate, after the pretor or consul had received his name. If the senate accepted him, he was permitted to offer himself, on the day of election, as a candidate. The formula, by which permission was granted, was, rationem habebo, renuntiabo; if he was not accepted, he received the answer rationem non habebo; non renuntiabo. The tribunes often opposed a candidate who had been accepted by the senate. The morals of the aspirants, in the purer ages of the republic, were always severely examined. In the later period of the republic, nobody could obtain an office if he was not present, and if he had not offered himself on three market-days. (Sall. Cat. 18., Cic. Fam. xvi. 12.) On these days, the candidates tried to insinuate themselves into the favor of the people. They went from house to house (ambiendo), shook hands with every body whom they met (prensando), addressed each one by his name, for which purpose they generally had a nomenclator with them, who whispered the names of those whom they met into their ear. Cicero, therefore, calls the candidates natio officiosissima. They placed themselves, on market-days, in elevated places, in order to be seen. On the day of election, they did the same. Favorites of the people accompanied them (deductores); some of their suite (divisores) distributed money among the people, which, though prohibited, was done publicly. Interpretes were employed to bargain with the people, and the money was deposited in the hands of sequestres. Sometimes a number of candidates united into parties (coitiones), in order to defeat the endeavors of the others. At last, the grounds on which each candidate rested his claims to the office were read, and the tribes delivered their votes. The successful candidate then sacrificed to the gods in the capitol. To oppose a candidate was called ei refragari; to support him, suffragari, or suffragatores esse.-We have dwelt so long on this subject, on account of the similarity between the ancient and the modern modes of seeking office.-The word candidate is also used, by Protestants, to designate a theologian, who, having finished his studies at a university, is waiting for an appointment in the church.

CANDIDE; the name of a famous tale of Voltaire's, forming an epoch in French literature, in which he ridicules the system of optimism with his usual spirit, and

attacks revelation with plausible but superficial arguments. Voltaire is unsurpassed in the art of treating the most serious subjects with light raillery, while he seduces the reader by the charms of his style. Some descriptions in this tale, for instance, that of the carnival at Venice, are excellent.

CANDLEMAS; a Catholic feast, instituted by pope Gelasius I, in 492, in com memoration of the presentation of Christ in the temple, and of the purification of Mary; perhaps intended to take the place of the rude heathen feast called the Lapercalia, which was abolished by him. It is celebrated on February 2, and has its name from the consecrated torches which are carried about in procession, in allusion to the words of Simeon, "a light to enlighten the Gentiles."

CANE. (See Bamboo and Ratan.)

CANEA; the principal port of Candia; lat. 35° 28′ 45′′ N.; Jon. 24° 12′ 45′′ E.; supposed to be on the site of the ancient Cydonia. Population, 7150. The city has been fortified from the time of the Venetian government.

CANGA-ARGUELLES, don José, Spanish minister of finance from 1820 to March, 1821, distinguished himself in the cortes of 1812, no less by his talents than by his zeal for the establishment of a constitution. When he was minister, he laid before the cortes a statement of all the possessions of the crown and of the church in Spain, from which it appeared that the latter surpassed the former by a third part. When king Ferdinand, in 1814, resumed the government, C. was confined in Penniscola, but, in 1816, was restored to liberty, and employed in Valencia. In his Memoria Sobre el Credito Publico, he represented the condition of the treasury, at the time when the king swore to observe the constitution, and set forth the measures of the ministry for improving the condition of the finances. According to this report, the annual deficit of 340,050,231 reals was more than the whole revenue. Among other means of remedying the evil, the minister proposed to raise 140,000,000 reals by direct taxes; to sell a 7th part of the property of the church and monasteries; also the small possessions of the crown in North Africa, and to make proposals for a loan of 200,000,000 reals. He presented a plan, likewise, for diminishing the great number of officers, and reducing the amount of exclusive privileges. His projects were executed only in part, In 1821, he resigned his office, together with

the other ministers, and was chosen, in 1822, a member of the cortes. In this body, he joined the party of the moderate liberals. After the fall of the constitution in Cadiz, he fled to England.

CANGE, DU. (See Du Fresne.)

CANISIUS, Petrus, born in 1524, at Nimeguen, was the first man in Germany who entered the order of the Jesuits, of which he became a very active member. In 1549, he was made professor of the ology, rector and vice-chancellor of the university at Ingolstadt. He afterwards reformed the university of Vienna, according to the views of the order. His catechism is yet in use. He persuaded Ferdinand I to adopt violent measures against the Protestants, and founded the colleges at Prague, Augsburg, Dillingen, and Friburg, in Switzerland, in the latter of which he died, in 1597.

CANNE; a city in the Neapolitan province Puglia, at the mouth of the Aufidus, on the Adriatic, famous for the great battle in which the Romans were here defeated by Hannibal (216 B. C.). The consuls Æmilius Paulus and Terentius Varro contented themselves with acting on the defensive against the Carthaginian general, who endeavored to decide the fate of Rome by one blow; but the senate, considering that the Roman army consisted of 87,000 men, while that of the enemy amounted only to 50,000, among whom were 10,000 horse, and would have no point of support when beaten, commanded the consuls to give battle. Hannibal, seeing that their plan was changed, allowed Varro to gain a slight advantage in a skirmish of cavalry. The Romans left their strong position at Canusium, on the banks of the Aufidus, and the whole army crossed the river. The consul Varro drew up his troops on the plain, with his right wing protected by the river. At the same time, Hannibal forded the Aufidus, and led his small army to the attack. The Romans had their own cavalry on the right wing, that of their allies on the left, and the infantry, as usual, in the centre. Hannibal opposed the Numidian cavalry to that of the Roman allies, and that of the Spaniards and Gauls to the Roman. His infantry from Africa he divided into two bodies, each of them near the cavalry. At some distance from both wings, the Spaniards and Gauls, on foot, arranged in an obtuse angle, occupied the centre. Behind them was a strong reserve. Hannibal himself commanded the centre. He had calculated that the wind called Volturnus, which

blew regularly at certain hours in that country, would, at the time of attack, throw dust and sand in the eyes of the Romans, and hide his own evolutions. The consul Æmilius Paulus was wounded by a Balearian slinger, soon after the light troops had begun the engagement. The first shock of the Roman cavalry upon the Spaniards and Gauls was violent. After the fight had lasted for a long time, they alighted, and fought on foot. The Gauls and Spaniards then broke through the dismounted Romans, and cut them down. The Roman infantry, to assist their horse, moved in a curved line towards the wing, under very disadvantageous circumstances, and attacked the Spanish and Gallic infantry, which retired in good order into the intervals, as Hannibal had commanded. By this means, Hannibal was enabled to attack the Romans in flank, as they advanced incautiously, with the African infantry, which he had kept back for this purpose. Thus surrounded, and contracted into a small compass, the Romans fell in great numbers, among them the consul Æmilius Paulus, and both the proconsuls Servilius and Atilius. The Numidian horse destroyed those who fled from the field of battle. The victor made 13,000 prison

ers.

The Romans lost, according to their own lowest statements, 45,000 men; according to the highest, 70,000. Hannibal collected the gold rings of the knights who had fallen, and sent some bushels thereof to Carthage. But the victory had also weakened his own army. He was in want of money to recruit his troops. This want, rather than the short period of luxurious living in winter-quarters at Capua, obliged him, at length, to give up the hope of conquering Italy, after a war of 17 campaigns. (See Hannibal.)

CANNES, OF CANES; a small seaport of France, on the shore of the Mediterranean, in the department of the Var; population, about 2800. C. is famous as the place where the memorable march of Napoleon through France began, when he returned from Elba. He landed here March 1, 1815.

CANNIBALS. (See Anthropophagi and Caribs.)

CANNING, George, was born in London, April 11, 1770. His father, a man of considerable abilities and literary cultivation, had offended his family by marrying a lady of beauty and accomplishments, but without fortune, and died in 1771, leaving his widow destitute. She had recourse to the stage for support, but was

not very successful, and was afterwards a matter of policy, the state of opinion, twice married. Her second husband was the condition of affairs, and the securities an actor; her third, Mr. Hunn, a linen- with which it should be accompanied, draper of Exeter. She lived to see the were, with him, elements of the question. success of her son, from whom she ever He proposed securities, in 1813, which, received the tenderest marks of filial love. with the bill, were rejected. He supC., who had inherited a small estate in ported, in 1812 and 1813, the same motion Ireland, was educated at Eton, where he which he had opposed in 1810; and, in was distinguished for industry, vigor of 1821, two bills in favor of the Catholics mind, and elegance of taste, and, at the having been introduced into the house of age of 15, formed the plan of a periodical commons, he observed, "that the moment paper, called the Microcosm, of which he was peculiarly favorable for discussion; was the principal editor. In 1787, he was that they were in possession of a peace entered at Oxford. His vacations were achieved by Catholic arms, and cemented passed with Sheridan, by whom he was by Catholic blood." To C. was princiintroduced to Burke, Fox, and other dis- pally owing the first blow which shook tinguished whigs. But, although Sheri- the throne of Napoleon; the British polidan had already announced him, in par- cy in Spain was directed and animated liament, as the future ornament of his by him. "If there was any part of his party, C. entered into terms with Pitt, by political life," he declared, on one occawhom he was brought into parliament in sion, "in which he gloried, it was that, in 1793. During the first session, he re- the face of every difficulty, discourage mained silent. His maiden effort was ment, and prophecy of failure, his had made in 1794, on the Sardinian treaty, been the hand which had committed and rather disappointed expectation. In England to an alliance with Spain." 1794, he took the degree of M. A., and, 'Never," said he, on another occasion, from that time, resided constantly in Lon- "ought we to relinquish our hold of the don. In 1796, he was under-secretary Peninsula. The ruler of France has one of state. In 1797, he projected, with some graud object, to which he stands pledged of his friends, the Anti-Jacobin, or Week--the establishment of his dominion in ly Examiner, of which Gifford was appointed editor. C. contributed many poetical and other articles to this periodical. In 1798, he supported Wilberforce's motion for the abolition of the slave-trade, and continued always an advocate for the amelioration of the condition of the blacks. In July, 1800, C. increased his fortune and influence by a marriage with Joanna, daughter of general Scott, a lady with a fortune of £100,000. The administration being dissolved in 1801, C. became a member of the opposition, until the restoration of Pitt in 1804. In 1807, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs in the Portland administration. A political misunderstanding with lord Castlereagh led to a duel between that minister and C., in which the latter was slightly wounded. This dispute occasioned the dissolution of the ministry. In 1810, he opposed the reference of the Catholic claims to the committee of the whole house, on the ground that no security or engagement had been offered by the Catholics. Some of his most brilliant speeches were on this subject. He invariably supported the admission of the Catholics to power, not as an abstract question of right, but as a matter of expediency of hourly increasing expediency. The adoption of the measure being then

the Peninsula. If he fail in this, his defeat must be most signal." In 1812, he was elected member of parliament for Liverpool; from which he was also returned in 1814, 1818, 1820. In 1814, he was appointed minister to Portugal, and remained absent about two years. In 1819, he declared his decided hostility to parliamentary reform, in whatever shape; and his speech on lord John Russell's motion for reform, in 1822, is among the most finished specimens of his eloquence. On the occasion of the proceedings relative to the queen, he declared, that "toward the object of that investigation, he felt an unaltered regard and affection;" and soon after resigned the presidency of the board of control, and went abroad. Having been nominated governor-general of India, he was on the point of embarking, when the death of the marquis of Londonderry called him to the cabinet as secretary for foreign affairs (Sept. 16, 1822). One of his earliest acts, in this situation, was to check the French influence in Spain; and, in a debate on this subject (April 2, 1823), he observed, "It is true that there is a contest going on in the world between the spirit of unlimited monarchy and the spirit of unlimited democracy. Between these two spirits there is a strife openly in

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