rency, near Paris, and adorned it with the finest productions of Italian art. It was injured so much at the second occupation of Paris, in 1815, that nothing could be done with it, except to sell it to the bande noire. (q. v.)

ALDOBRANDINI; the name of a princely family at Rome, celebrated in the history of art on account of an antique fresco, in their villa, representing a wedding, and called by the name of the Aldobrandine wedding. It was discovered in the time of Clement VIII, not far from the church Santa Maria Maggiore, in the district where, formerly, were the gardens of Mæcenas, and carried thence into that villa. Winckelmann supposed it to be the wedding of Peleus and Thetis; the count Bondy, that of Manlius and Julia.Several scholars, also, of this name have distinguished themselves, especially Sylvester A., famous for his knowledge of law, and his brother Thomas, both in the 16th century.

ALDRED; abbot of Tavistock, and afterwards bishop of Worcester, 1046. He was the first English bishop who visited Jerusalem, and after his return was raised to the see of York, an elevation, which, when he appeared at Rome, the pope refused to ratify, on account of his ignorance and simony. A.'s solicitations, however, prevailed, and he received the pallium from the pontiff. On the death of Edward the Confessor, he crowned Harold, and afterwards the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed, and whose power he made subservient to the views of the church. When he had received some indignities from a governor of York, he flew to London, and, with all the indignation and haughtiness of an offended prelate, demanded vengeance, and pronounced a curse on the head of William. His wrath was with difficulty pacified by the entreaties of the sovereign and his nobles, and the curse was recalled, and changed into a blessing. It is said that he died with grief, on seeing the north of England desolated by the ravages of Harold and Canute, sons of Sweyn, Sept. 11, 1068.

ALDUS. (See Manutius.)

ALE; a fermented liquor obtained from an infusion of malt; differing from beer chiefly in having a less proportion of hops. (See Brewing.) We first hear of ale in Egypt. The natives of Spain, the inhabitants of France, the aborigines of Britain and Germany, all used an infusion of barley; and it was called by the various names of cælia and ceria in the first

country, cerevisia in the second, and curmi in the two last; all literally signifying strong water. Tacitus, Diodorus Siculus and Pliny speak of this beverage as common among the nations just mentioned. Henry's History of England (8vo. vol. ii. p. 364), Hume's Hist. (vol. ii. p. 224), and Pinkerton's Geography (vol. i. p. 65), give the history of this liquor in England. Dr. Stubbs (Phil. Trans. No. 27) says that ale may be preserved from turning sour on long voyages, by putting in every rundlet of five gallons, after being placed in a cask on board the ship, not to be moved again, two new-laid eggs whole. The value of this receipt, however, has been disputed. The duties on ale and beer make a considerable branch of the revenue of England. They were first imposed in 1643, and again during the reign of Charles II.

ALECTO. (See Furies.)

A-LEE; the situation of the helm when it is pushed down to the lee side of the ship, in order to put the ship about, or to lay her head to the windward.

ALEGAMBE, Philip; an author whose writings afford a great amount of information respecting the order of the Jesuits. He was a Jesuit, born at Brussels, 1592. His Bibliothèque des auteurs Jesuites was published at Antwerp, 1643; Vita P. Joannis Cardin. Lusitani ex Societ. Jesu, 12mo., Rome, 1649; Heröes_et_Victimo Caritatis Societ. Jesu, 4to. Rome, 1658; Mortes illustres et gesta eorum de Societ, Jesu, qui in Odium Fidei ab Hæreticis vel aliis occisi sunt, fol. Rome, 1657. A. died at Rome, 1652. He was for some time confessor of the emperor Ferdinand, and afterwards retained at Rome by the general of his order as secretary, to prepare the Latin despatches to Germany. The Bibliothèque, his chief work, was also published in Latin, Rome, 1675.

ALEMANNI; that is, all men, or various sorts of men; the name of a military confederacy of several German tribes, which, at the commencement of the 3d century, approached the Roman territory. Their settlements extended, on the east side of the Rhine, from lake Constance, the Elbe and the Danube, to the Maine and the Lahn. Their neighbors on the east were the Suevi, and, farther on, the Burgundians. The principal tribes composing the Alemannic league were the Teucteri, Usipetes, Chatti and Vangiones. Caracalla first fought with them, on the southern part of the Rhine, in 211, but did not conquer them; Severus was likewise unsuccessful. Maximin was the first who

conquered and drove them beyond the Rhine, in 236. After his death, they again invaded Gaul; but Posthumius defeated them, pursued them into Germany, and fortified the boundary with ramparts and ditches; of which the mounds near Phöring, on the Danube, the rampart extending through Hohenlohe to Jaxthausen, and the ditch with palisadoes on the north side of the Maine, are remnants. (See Devil's Wall.) But the A. did not desist from their incursions, and were successively repulsed by Lollianus, the successor of Posthumius, by the emperor Probus, in 282, and afterwards by Constantius Chlorus. Nevertheless, during the disturbances in the empire, and until Constantine became its sole master, they occupied the tract from Mentz to Strasburg. At last, Julian was sent, when Cæsar, to Gaul, in 357. He again repulsed the A., and forced their princes, of whom there were then eight, to sue for peace. Their whole force, in the chief battle against Julian, amounted to 35,000 men. When the migration of the northern tribes began, the A. were among the hordes that overran Gaul. They spread along the whole western side of the Rhine, and, in the latter half of the 5th century, over all Helvetia. At last, Clovis broke their power in 496, subdued them, and deprived them of a large portion of their possessions. Many of them fled to Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, into Italy and the Alps; the greater part, however, returned to their own country.

ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d', one of the most distinguished mathematicians and literary characters of the 18th century, was born in Paris, in 1717, but was exposed by his parents, madame de Tencin and the poet Destouches, provincial commissary of artillery. The child appeared so weak, that the police officer, instead of carrying it to the foundling hospital, committed it to the care of the wife of a poor glazier. Perhaps he had secret instructions to do so; for, although his parents never publicly acknowledged him, they did not withdraw their care from him; on the contrary, his father afterwards settled upon him an income of 1200 livres, a sum which was then sufficient to procure the necessaries of life. He showed much facility in learning, and at the age of 4 years, was sent to a boarding-school. He was but 10 years old, when the principal, a man of merit, declared that he could teach him no more. He entered the college Mazarin at the age of 12. His talents surprised his in

structers, who thought they had found in him a second Pascal to support the cause of the Jansenists, with whom they were closely connected. He wrote, in the first years of his philosophical studies, a commentary on the epistle of Paul to the Romans. But, when he began to study mathematics, this science captivated him so much, that he renounced all theological disputes. He left college, studied law, became an advocate, but did not cease to occupy himself with mathematics, though he was almost entirely destitute of property. A pamphlet on the motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and another on the integral calculus, which he laid before the academy of sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him in so favorable a light, that the academy received him, in 1741, into the number of its members. He soon after published his famous works on dynamics, Traité de dynamique, and on fluids, Traité des fluides. In 1746, his Theory of the Winds obtained the prize offered by the academy of Berlin, of which he was chosen a member. Among his communications to this academy, two are highly distinguished-that on pure analysis, and the one which treats of the vibrations of strings. He also took a part in the investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the motion of the heavenly bodies. Whilst Euler and Clairaut were engaged in these, he delivered, in 1747, to the academy of sciences, a solution of the problem proposed to determine what disturbances are occasioned by the mutual attraction of the plan ets, in their elliptical revolutions round the sun, and what their motion would be, if they were acted on only by the attractive power of the sun. He continued these labors for several years, and published, at intervals, various important astronomical treatises, including one on the precession of the equinoxes; also his experiment on the resistance of fluid bodies, and a number of dissertations on other subjects; works, of the value of which there is but one opinion among scholars, but which produced a coldness on the part of Euler and others.-In the first fervor of his fondness for mathematics, he had, for a time, become indifferent to belles-lettres; but his early love of them soon revived, after his most important discoveries, when mathematical investigations ceased to afford him so rich a harvest of new truths, or he felt the necessity of relaxation. He entered on this new career, with his introduction to the Encyclopédie, and it will always be a pattern of style in

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treating of scientific subjects, uniting, as it does, elegance and precision. D'A. comprised, in this introduction, the essence of all his knowledge of mathematics, philosophy and literature, acquired in a study of 20 years, and this was all that was known at that time, in France, on these subjects. He undertook to prepare the mathematical part of the Encyclopédie, and wrote a great number of excellent articles. His name being prefixed to this work, he shared its fate, and exposed himself to numberless quarrels. D'A. soon after entered the French academy, and continued to cultivate the belleslettres, together with mathematics. His literary works, on account of their profoundness and accuracy, met with the approbation of all sound minds; they are distinguished by purity of language, clearness of style, and force of thought. Although he experienced much persecution on account of his connexion with the Encyclopédie, and was neglected by the government of his country, he would not accept the invitations of Frederic II to settle in Berlin, nor the offers of the Russian empress, who desired him to take charge of the education of her son, with a pension of 100,000 livres. His country learned his worth from foreigners; and the king of Prussia gave him a pension, when the academy of sciences, at Paris, refused him the salary to which he was justly entitled. Though his income was always moderate, his beneficence was great. He lived above 30 years, in the plainest manner, in the house of the woman who had brought him up, and left these lodgings only when his health compelled him. His long attachment to Mlle. de l'Espinasse shows that he was not destitute of a feeling heart. Valuing independence more than any thing else, he avoided the society of the great, and sought only that into which he could enter with cheerfulness and frankness. The reputation which he enjoyed, the intimate friendship between him and Voltaire, and his great merits, procured him many enemies. He had a literary contest with J. J. Rousseau, on account of an article on Geneva, intended for the Encyclopédie. His religious character seems to have been that of a sober deist. He died of the stone, being unwilling to submit to an operation, in 1783, in the 66th year of his age. Frederic II, who had, in 1763, become personally acquainted with d'A., maintained a correspondence with him, which was published after the death of both, and is very inter

esting. The enemies of d'A., with a view of depreciating his merits, called him a good geometrician among the literati, and a good belles-lettres scholar among the geometricians. The truth is, that his rank is somewhat higher in geometry than in belles-lettres; but, owing to the influence of style upon the fate of writings, his works in the department of belles-lettres, will continue to interest longer than his mathematical treatises. The former are collected in the Euvres philosophiques, historiques et littéraires de d'Alembert, 18 vols. Paris, 1809. Condorcet has drawn his character in his Éloge.

ALENÇON, capital of the French department of the Orne, on the Sarthe, contains 1528 houses, and 13,500 inhabitants, a college, a société d'émulation, a library, and considerable manufactories of bonelace, etamine, woollen stockings, leather, &c. The diamonds of A., so called, are found in the neighboring quarries. 3000 women are employed here in manufacturing point-lace. Also a kind of linen, toile d'Alençon, enjoys much reputation. The neighboring country has become richer by the division of the large estates, and the town itself more industrious.

ALENIO, Julius; a Jesuit, born at Brescia, in the territory of Venice. He was a missionary in China, arrived, in 1610, at Macao, and left several works in the Chinese language. He died 1649.

ALEPPO, or HALEP; capital of the Asiatic pashalic of the same name, which is the second in the Turkish empire, and comprises the northern part of Syria, including mount Lebanon. It contains 9,800 square miles, and 450,000 inhabitants. The Orontes, abounding in fish, is the only river of the pashalic, which, under any other government, would long since have been connected, by a canal running through a level plain, with the Euphrates. The country produces chiefly wheat, barley, cotton, indigo, sesamum, &c., and, in the mountains, mulberry, olive and fig-trees. Halep, the seat of a pasha of three tails, a Greek patriarch, an Armenian, a Jacobite, and a Maronite bishop, is, within the walls, about 3 miles in circumference; including the suburbs, however, about 7 or 8. It contains 14,137 houses, 200,000 inhabitants (24,000 of whom are Christians), 100 mosques, 3 Catholic churches, 1 Protestant church, a synagogue, many manufactories of silk, cotton, &c. It carries on considerable trade, forming the centre of the intercourse between the Persian gulf and the

Mediterranean sea. Most of the inhabitants are Mohammedans, the rest Jews, oriental Christians, and Europeans. The city lost two thirds of its houses, and 8000 inhabitants, by the earthquakes in 1822 and 1823. Lon. 37° 10 E.; lat. 36° 11′ N. ALESIA, the capital of the Mandubii, a Gallic people, who dwelt in what is now Burgundy, was an important fortress, the siege and taking of which was, undoubtedly, the greatest military exploit of Cæsar. All Gaul had risen against the Romans, even the Ædui, the old allies of the oppressors; but Cæsar conquered them under Vercingetorix, and besieged them in Alesia. 80,000 men were shut up in the town; Cæsar, with 60,000 troops, lay before it. He erected, immediately, a line of contravallation, extending 4 leagues, in order to reduce the place by famine, since its situation on a hill, 1500 feet high, and on all sides abrupt, between the rivers Ope and Operain, rendered an attack impossible. Vercingetorix, after making several furious but unsuccessful sallies, called all the Gauls to arms, and, in a short time, 250,000 men appeared before the place. Cæsar had, in the mean time, completed his line of circumvallation, protecting himself against any attack from without by a breast-work, a ditch with palisadoes, and several rows of pit-falls. These defences enabled him to repel the desperate attack of 330,000 Gauls against the 60,000 Romans under his command, though he was assailed both in front and rear. The Gauls were unable to force his lines at any point. Vercingetorix, reduced to extremity by hunger, was compelled to surrender, without having carried into execution his design of murdering all the persons in the town who were unqualified for battle. But the whole tribe of the Mandubii, which had been expelled from the city by the Gauls, and were not allowed by the Romans to pass into the open country, died of famine between the two camps. Afterwards, A. rose again to a flourishing condition, until it was destroyed, in 864, by the Normans. Vestiges of wells, aqueducts, broken tiles, coins and the like, found in the fields where A. once stood, prove the former existence of the city. At the foot of the ancient citadel (now mount Auxois), is a village called Alise (depart. Côte d'Or), with several hundred inhabitants.

ALESSANDRIA. (See Alexandria.) ALEUTIAN ISLANDS; a group belonging to Russia, and separating the sea of Kamtschatka from the northern part of

the Pacific ocean, extending nearly 700 miles from E. to W., from lon. 169° to 183° E.; lat. 53° N. They form a chain connecting Asia and America, and include what have generally been called, in English geographical works, the Fox islands, Behring's and Copper islands, and the group formerly divided into the Aleutian and Andrenovian isles, altogether above 100, comprising about 10,000 square miles, all rocky, some containing volcanoes and hot springs. The most known and largest are the Oonalashka, Behring's island and Kodiak. The principal place is Alexandria, the seat of the governor, and the chief emporium. No tree grows on these islands, and no domestic animal thrives there; but they afford an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. The inhabitants belong to the same stock with the natives of Kamtschatka; they are a harmless race of hunters and fishers. Their number has been reduced by the small pox and the venereal disease to 1000. The Russians, to whom they pay tribute, visit these inhospitable islands only for the sake of fur. The officers of the Russian-American company treat the inhabitants so cruelly, that Krusenstern made a report about it to the Russian government.Müller's Sammlung Russischer Geschichte, vol. iii.; Coxe's Account of the Russian Discoveries; Tooke's View of the Russian Empire; Krusenstern's Voyage round the World; Cooke, &c.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT, son of Philip of Macedon, was born in Pella, B. C. 356. His mother was Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus of Epirus. In his early youth, he showed the marks of a great character. When he heard of the victories of Philip, he exclaimed, “My father will not leave any thing for me to do." Philip confided the charge of his education first to Leonidas, a relation of his mother, and to Lysimachus; afterwards to Aristotle. At a distance from the court, this great philosopher instructed him in all the branches of human knowledge, especially those necessary for a ruler, and wrote for his benefit a work on the art of government, which is unfortunately lost. As Macedon was surrounded by dangerous neighbors, Aristotle sought to cultivate in his pupil the talents and virtues of a military commander. With this view he recommended to him the reading of the Iliad, and revised this poem himself. The copy revised by Aristotle was the favorite book of A., who never lay down without having read some pages in it. At the same time he formed

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his body by gymnastic exercises. When very young, as every body knows, he tamed the horse Bucephalus, which no one else dared to mount. When he was 16 years old, Philip, setting out on an expedition against Byzantium, delegated the government to him during his absence. He performed prodigies of valor, two years later (338), in the battle at Charonea, where he obtained great reputation by conquering the sacred band of the Thebans. "My son," said Philip, after the battle, embracing him, "seek another empire, for that which I shall leave you is not worthy of you." The father and son, however, quarrelled when Philip repudiated Olympias. A., who took the part of his mother, was obliged to flee to Epirus, to escape the vengeance of his father; but he soon obtained pardon, and returned. He afterwards accompanied Philip on an expedition against the Triballi, and saved his life in a battle. Philip, having been elected chief commander of the Greeks, was preparing for a war against Persia, when he was assassinated, B. C. 336. A., not yet 20 years of age, ascended the throne, punished the murderer, went into the Peloponnesus, and received, in the general assembly of the Greeks, the chief command in the war against Persia. After his return, he found the Illyrii and Triballi in arms, went to meet them, forced a passage through Thrace, and was every where successful. But the Thebans, having heard a rumor of his death, had taken up arms, and the Athenians, urged by Demosthenes, were about to join them. A. hastened to prevent this junction, appeared before Thebes, and, having summoned it in vain to surrender, took and destroyed the city. 6000 of the inhabitants were put to the sword, and 30,000 carried into captivity. The house and family of the poet Pindar alone were spared. This severity terrified all Greece. The Athenians suffered less. A. demanded only the banishment of Charmides, who had spoken most bitterly against him. Leaving Antipater to govern in his stead in Europe, and being confirmed as commander in chief of the Greek forces, in the general assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over into Asia, in the spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. To secure the protection of Minerva, he sacrificed to her, on the fields of Ilium, crowned the tomb of Achilles, and congratulated this hero, from whom he was descended through his mother, on his good fortune in having had such a friend as Patroclus, and such a poet as

Homer. When he approached the Granicus, he learned that several Persian satraps, with 20,000 foot, and as many horse, awaited him on the other side. A., without delay, led his army through the river, and obtained a complete victory; having overthrown, with his lance, Mithridates, the son-in-law of Darius, and exposed himself to every danger. The Macedonians, encouraged by his example, bore down every thing before them, and the whole army crossed the river. The Greek auxiliaries of the Persians, who were formed in phalanxes, resisted longer, and were all destroyed, except 2000, who were taken prisoners. A. performed splendid funeral ceremonies in honor of those of his army who had fallen, and granted privileges to their fathers and children. Most of the cities of Asia Minor, even Sardis, opened their gates to the victor. Miletus and Halicarnassus resisted longer. A. restored democracy in all the Greek cities. In passing through Gordium, he cut the Gordian knot, and conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia and Cappadocia. But a dangerous sickness, brought on by bathing in the Cydnus, checked his course. On this occasion he showed the elevation of his character. He received a letter from Parmenio, saying that Philip, his physician, had been bribed by Darius to poison him. A. gave the letter to the physician, and at the same time drank the potion which he had prepared for him. Scarcely was he restored to health, when he advanced towards the defiles of Cilicia, whither Darius had imprudently betaken himself, with an immense army, instead of awaiting his adversary on the plains of Assyria. The second battle took place near Issus, between the sea and the mountains. The disorderly masses of the Persians were broken by the charge of the Macedonians, and fled in wild confusion. On the left wing, 30,000 Greeks, in the pay of the Persian king, resisted longer; but they also were obliged to yield. The treasures and family of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror. The latter were treated most magnanimously. A. did not pursue Darius, who fled towards the Euphrates, but, in order to cut him off from the sea, turned towards Cœlo-yria and Phoenicia. Here he received a letter from Darius, proposing peace. A. answered, that, if he would come to him, he would restore to him not only his mother, wife and children without ransom, but also his empire. This answer produced no effect. The victory at Issus