principles of an enlightened age. His first governor, count Nich. Soltikoff, received orders from Catharine not to give the young prince any instruction in poetry and music, as requiring too much time for the attainment of proficiency. Professor Kraft instructed him in natural philosophy, and Pallas, a short time, in botany. He took part, it is probable, in the conspiracy against his father, though it is not likely that he had the most distant thought against his life. He wished to save himself and many nobles of the empire from the mad persecution of the emperor, and nothing short of dethroning him could afford them safety. He is often said, therefore, to have acted in self-defence. The history of his government may be divided into 3 periods: The first was peaceful, and entirely devoted to the execution of the schemes of Peter the Great and Catharine II, respecting the internal administration. The second, extending from 1805 to 1814, was a time of war with France, Sweden, the Porte and Persia, and developed the resources and the national feeling of the people. In the third period, he used the experience acquired in the two preceding, to carry into effect the declaration of Peter the Great, made 100 years before, in 1714, after a victory over the Swedish fleet, near the Aland islands:-"Nature has but one Russia, and it shall have no rival.”—A. was distinguished for moderation, activity and attention to business, personally superintending the multiplied concerns of his vast empire, while his simple and amiable manners gained him the love and confidence of his subjects. He understood and was zealous in promoting the welfare of his people. Great attention was paid, during his reign, to education and intellectual culture, and many improvements were introduced into the internal administration of the empire; e. g. the establishment of the senate by the ukase of 1802, of the imperial council and the ministry of 8 divisions by the ukase of 1810, of the provincial administration in the governments, &c. The shackles which hung on the industry of the nation were removed, and its commerce increased.-A. has likewise advanced the military establishments of Russia to a high degree of perfection; he has developed in his people the sentiments of union, courage and patriotism; and, lastly, he has raised Russia to a high rank in the political system of Europe, and has made its importance felt even in Asia. It must be also acknowledged that, during his reign, taste

and intelligence began to be diffused among the higher classes, as well as eminent and even liberal statesmen to be formed, though it is in this, as in so many other things, difficult to distinguish what is owing to the prince, and what to the spirit of the age.-Among the most intimate associates of the emperor were general Jermoloff, afterwards Wolchonsky, Araktschejeff and Diebitsch. In the earlier part of his reign, some Greeks stood high in his favor, as did the French ambassador, count Caulaincourt, from 1807 to 1812.-Among the merits of A. are to be reckoned his exertions for the improvement of the Sclavonian nations, and the cultivation of their language and literature. He founded or new-modelled 7 universities, at Dorpat, Kazan, Charkov, Moscow, Wilna, Warsaw and St. Petersburg; 204 academies, many seminaries for the education of instructers, and above 2000 common schools, partly after the system of Lancaster. He did much for the distribution of the Bible, by the aid which he rendered to the Bible societies (abolished in 1826). He granted important privileges, by a ukase of 1817, to Jews becoming Christians. He appropriated large sums for the printing of important works, as the Voyage of Krusenstern, the History of Russia by Karamsin, &c. He esteemed and rewarded literary merit, both in and out of Russia. He purchased rare and valuable collections. In 1818, he invited two orientalists, Demange and Charmoy, from Paris to Petersburg, to advance the study of the Arabic, Armenian, Persian and Turkish languages. He attended particularly to the education of young men of talent, whom he sent to travel through foreign countries. He endeavored, at the same time, by moderate measures, to relieve his subjects from the tyranny of their lords, the nobles, the boyars, starosts, &c. Servitude was abolished in 1816, in Esthonia, Livonia and Courland; and A. declared, that he would no longer transfer with the crown-lands the boors who cultivated them. He forbade the advertising of human beings for sale, and gave leave to a number of boors, a part of the bondmen of the late chancellor Romanzoff, to ransom themselves from their master. He endeavored, with much earnestness, to give to his people a good system of law, but the civil code of Russia still requires many improvements. The law-school, opened in 1807, ceased in 1810.-The custom of slitting the nose and branding, hitherto connected with whipping with the knout, was abolished

by A. in 1817. He likewise abolished, in 1801, the secret court, as it was called, before which political criminals, chiefly, were brought, and compelled, by hunger and thirst (not, however, by instruments of torture), to confess. He checked the abuse of power in the hands of governors, by preventive laws. The privilege of the nobles, that their estates could not be confiscated as a punishment for their crimes, was extended by A. to all his subjects. He also rendered efficient aid to manufactures and commerce in his empire, by the introduction of a better tariff; the improvement of the finances and currency of the country, after the establishment of a sinking fund; the erection of the bank of the imperial chamber, May 19, 1817; by providing continually for the construction of roads and canals; by making Odessa a free port, and granting it other privileges, in 1817. The condition of manufactures in Russia has greatly improved since 1804, when it became known from the report of the minister of the interior. The greatest progress has been made in manufactures in wool. The whole foreign policy of Russia; the voyages round the world, under the patronage of her government; the embassy to Persia, in 1817, to which was attached a Frenchman, Gardanne, who was acquainted with all the plans of Napoleon respecting India and Persia; the mission to Cochin China and Khiwa; the relations of Russia with the U. States, Brazil and Spain; the treaties of commerce and navigation with the Porte; the settlements on the western coast of North America, all prove the enlightened commercial policy of the Russian cabinet. The travels of A. in foreign countries, even his short stay in England, his intercourse with well-informed and sensible men, but, principally, his frequent journeys through the provinces of his empire, afforded the materials of his numerous projects for the benefit of his country. On this his attention was continually fixed. -The peace of Tilsit, in 1807, makes an epoch in the Russian military system. It not only opened the way to the conquest of Finland, in 1809, and of two of the mouths of the Danube, in 1812, but afforded A. time to remove the defects of the military system hitherto in use. The armies of Russia, during the war with Napoleon, were remarkable for their equipment and discipline. The active interest which A. took in the proper ordering of all the branches of the administration, is the reason why the nation

was attached to him with full confidence, which he experienced in time of danger. A. never showed a timid, unenterprising spirit. His decision frustrated the plans of Napoleon at Moscow. He gave his word to his people, that he would never negotiate with Napoleon, as long as an armed enemy was in the country. The activity which prevailed in the military department of the Russian administration is proved by the army which appeared, in 1813, in Germany, and that which was kept ready, in 1815, to march against France, comprising 300,000 men and 2000 pieces of cannon. The peaceful character of A.'s policy is remarkable. His personal friendship for the king of Prussia, Frederic William III, which was confirmed at the tomb of Frederic II, in 1805, led to important consequences. The queen, Louisa, was the living tie of this union. Admiration for the dazzling qualities of Napoleon drew him over to his side. He believed, too, that he might, in connexion with the emperor of France, decide the fate of Europe. This was the purpose of his famous meeting with Napoleon at Erfurt, in Sept., 1808. But when he saw that the ambitious conqueror wished to involve him in political contradictions, and prescribe laws to him injurious to the welfare of his empire, he resolutely maintained his independence. He succeeded, at an interview with the princeroyal of Sweden, at Abo, Aug., 1812, in forming an alliance with that country, after having induced the Porte, in May of the same year, to conclude the peace of Bucharest. After 1812, a kind of religious character appears in the policy of A., and he gave himself up, more and more, to religious influence. This character is remarkably manifest in the proclamation which he addressed from Warsaw, on the 10th (22d) Feb., 1813, to the nations of Europe, and the proclamation of Kalitz, 25th March, 1813, directed to the Germans, in which he promised a great improvement in their condition, by means of a proper constitution, the object of which should be, to promote their liberty, security and prosperity. The memorable manifesto of 27th Jan., 1816, contained an exposition of the political principles of the emperor. In the war of 1813-14, A. exposed himself to danger, in order to inflame the courage of his troops. He undoubtedly exercised a great influence upon the course of the war in France. His openness gained the confidence of the French, and it is said that he was secretly applied to from Paris.

He also principally directed the march of Schwartzenberg, on the 29th March, 1814, to this capital, which put a glorious termination to the war. The magnanimity with which he treated Paris and all the French, the strict discipline of his troops, and the assurances which the allies, at his instance, tendered to the nation, facilitated the settlement of peace; and it is asserted that he acted from the belief that he was complying with the wishes of the French, and not from adherence to the principles of legitimacy, in recalling the Bourbons. He did not treat the conquered and dethroned emperor meanly, but respected in him the former sovereign and distributor of crowns, regardless of his birth. He called upon the empress Josephine, and dined with her at Malmaison; he interceded in favor of the prince Eugene Beauharnois; he visited Ney. The enthusiasm of the Parisians for him was unlimited. June 1, 1814, he went to England, where he was joyfully received. Several things, however, seem to have made an unfavorable impression upon him. He was not at ease among free Britons. He rose from his seat, however, at the banquet in Guildhall, in honor of the national song, Rule, Britannia. He left England 28th June, and reached Petersburg 25th July, where he declined the name of the Blessed, offered to him by the senate. A later ukase, of 27th Nov., 1817, forbade the praises which the clergy were accustomed to bestow on him from the pulpit. His presence in Vienna, during the congress, had a great influence upon the policy of Europe, occasioned the admission of some liberal views into the acts of the assembly, and added the kingdom of Poland to the gigantic power of Russia. The draft of the Polish constitution, prepared at the instance of A., was the first symptom of a disposition in the European rulers to perform the promises made to their subjects during the wars with Napoleon. A. again visited Paris, July, 1815, and from that period the great influence of Russia upon the French cabinet, in opposition to the influence of England, was apparent, especially when Richelieu, who had formerly been in the Russian service, was placed at the head of the ministry of Louis XVIII. In Spain, also, the same influence manifested itself. Even the court of Rio Janeiro showed a desire of allying itself with Russia; and the kingdom of the Netherlands, as well as Prussia, Wirtemberg and other states, entered into a closer union with the Rus

sian court. A., together with the powers that had concluded the treaty of Chaumont, took an active part in the general concerns of Europe; for instance, the revolt of the Spanish colonies, and the dispute of Spain with Portugal, on account of Monte Video. He took measures against the piracy of the African states. Very soon, nothing occurred, of importance to the political affairs of the European continent, in which this ambitious monarch did not appear as leader, mediator or partaker. From the formation of the holy alliance (q. v.), in Paris, 26th Sept., 1815, to his death, A. was actively engaged in politics, and kept his emissaries all over Europe, who reported to him every important occurrence. Among these was Kotzebue, the German author, who was assassinated by the student Sand. The memoir, directed to all the Russian ambassadors, concerning the affairs of Spain, the answer of the Russian cabinet to the Spanish minister, the chevalier Zea Bermudez, and the declaration of the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 15th Nov., 1818, are interesting documents in the history of A. He took part, in 1820, in the congresses held at Troppau and Laybach, to settle the affairs of Italy, and ordered his army to advance towards this country, to suppress the revolt of the Carbonari. As its presence was found to be unnecessary, it returned to Russia, when the affairs of Greece (q. v.) occupied the attention of the Russian cabinet, in 1821. A. publicly expressed his disapprobation of the enterprise of prince Alexander Ypsilanti (q. v.), but interceded, however, with the Porte, for the cause of humanity and Christianity. (See Stroganoff.) It is possible, that, from a sincere love of peace, he suffered the best opportunity to escape of liberating Greece, and increasing his empire. His letter to the viceroy of Poland, prince Zajonczeck [Aix-la-Chapelle, 7 (19) Oct., 1818], is a proof that he was not a stranger to liberal sentiments. He spoke in the same spirit, March 5, 1819, to a deputation of the Livonian nobility, requesting his ratification of the new constitution, which had been made for the benefit of the Livonian peasantry, when he used the memorable words,-"You have acted in the spirit of our age, in which liberal ideas afford the true basis of the happiness of nations." His remark to madame de Staël, several years before, was characteristic: "You will be offended with the sight of servitude in this land. It is not my fault; I have set the example of emancipation, but I cannot employ

force; I must respect the rights of others as much as if they were protected by a constitution, which, unhappily, does not exist." Madame de Staël answered "Sire, votre caractère est une constitution" (Sire, your character is a constitution). He had, at the beginning of his reign, abolished the secret police of state and the censorship of books (the latter of which, however, he introduced again at a later period), and declared, April 7, 1801, "I acknowledge no power to be lawful which does not emanate from the laws." In the same spirit he banished the Jesuits, 1st Jan., 1816, from Petersburg and Moscow, and at last, 25th March, 1820, from the empire, because they dared to interfere with the affairs of the government, and disturb the peace of families. He had prohibited proselytism, and promoted the instruction of the Jews. A. developed, in the same spirit, the internal resources and the external power of his immense empire. The addition of Georgia, Bialystock, Finland, Warsaw, Schirvan and Bessarabia has rendered its frontiers almost every where impenetrable, and increased the number of its inhabitants from 36 millions to more than 43, for the most part Europeans. The speedy rebuilding of Moscow, the progress of cultivation in Siberia and the Crimea, the number of inhabitants in the governments of Tobolsk, Tomsk and Irkutsk increased by 800,000, and similar proofs of the advancing prosperity of the empire, have immortalized the reign of A. Whether the gigantic plan of uniting the supporters of the political power of Russia, the classes of peasants and soldiers, will prove to be good, experience must decide. (See Military Colonies of Russia.) A., by the edict of 28th Dec., 1818, granted to all peasants in his empire the right of establishing manufactories, a right confined, hitherto, to the nobility, and the merchants of the first and second classes. A better disposition of the national debt, and a sinking fund, permitted an alleviation of taxes. A ukase of 1st Jan., 1819, therefore, abolished the tax upon income from landed property, established 11th Feb., 1812, but the expenses attending the support of a numerous army prevented any further remission. The population of southern Russia has been greatly increased by the admission of German emigrants; and the same plan was extended to Poland, where, by a decree of A., Warsaw, 10th Aug., 1816, the new settlers received deserted houses and lands, belonging to the national domains, or assistance of some

other kind. Schools and universities have been established; the system of Bell and Lancaster introduced; the ecclesiastical affairs of the Protestants and the Catholics arranged; the conversion of the Jews, or Christian Israelites, as they are called, encouraged; the activity of all public institutions for instruction increased, and the 17 scientific institutions in Petersburg and Moscow much improved. The expulsion of the Jesuits, indeed, disturbed a little the relations of the emperor with the see of Rome, but satisfactory explanations were made by A. to the pope at Laybach. Lastly, the emperor nominated a bishop, and established a general consistory for the Lutheran church throughout the empire, in 1820, which was to maintain, in their purity, the doctrines of the Protestant church. A. showed great respect for all Christian sects, and protected them equally. His endeavors to elevate the condition of the boors, and the general tendency of his policy to introduce the principles and manners of western Europe, offended the old Muscovite nobility, and, towards the conclusion of his reign, in spite of the vigilance of the police, a fearful and widely-spread conspiracy was formed against him, the discovery and punishment of which was reserved for his successor. Perhaps A. was aware of the existence of treasonable projects when he followed his sick wife to the Crimea. His intention may have been to choose a place of retirement from the cares of government; but he fell sick at Taganrock (q. v.) of a bilious fever, and died, 1st Dec., 1825, in the arms of his wife. The news of his death had scarcely reached Petersburg, 8th Dec., O. S., when his eldest brother, Constantine, then in Warsaw, was proclaimed emperor; and all the civil officers and the guards took the oath of allegiance 9th Dec. O. S. But the grand duke declined accepting the crown, having resigned his right of succession, during the life-time of A., in a letter addressed to the emperor, Petersburg, 14th Jan., 1822, to which an answer was sent, Feb. 2, 1822, by A., expressing his approbation, and that of the empress mother. Before the arrival at Petersburg of the letter of Constantine, dated Nov., 26th, O. S. in which he announced to his mother and brother, the grand duke Nicholas, that he recognised the latter as emperor, the senate had opened the testament of A., and found in it the document containing the resignation of Constantine, together with a manifesto of the emperor (dated Zarskojeselo, 16th Aug., 1823), declaring his

162

second brother, Nicholas, his successor. This prince, therefore, ascended the throne, made known these documents in his proclamation of the 12th Dec., O. S. 1825, and declared, at the same time, that the day of the death of A. was the beginning of his reign (1st Dec., N. S., 19th Nov., O. S.) Then the oath of allegiance to the emperor Nicholas I was taken, 13th Dec., O. S., 25th, N. S., in Petersburg. The death of A. was a fortunate event for Europe; for the influence of Russia was growing continually stronger in all the cabinets of the European continent, and even England could not keep entirely exempt from it. No other empire has united, on so great a scale, the power of masses, yet rude and vigorous, with experience and the advantages of culture, -a union the more dangerous, as it was under the control of one absolute master. With A., moreover, perished the principal support of the holy alliance, a sufficient reason for Europe to rejoice at his decease. Russia, however, laments in him a great benefactor. He had the good fortune to ascend the throne at a time when the empire was prepared for the greatest improvements, and his ambition was of a kind to be gratified by promoting the welfare of his people.

ALEXANDER, William, a major-general in the service of the U. States during the revolutionary war, was born in the city of New York, but passed a portion of his life in New Jersey. He was generally styled, through courtesy, lord Stirling, in consequence of being considered by many as the rightful heir to the title and estates of an earldom in Scotland, from which country his father came, though the government refused to acknowledge the son's claim, when he repaired to Great Britain in pursuit of this inheritance. He was early remarkable for his fondness for mathematics and astronomy, in which sciences he made considerable progress. Throughout the revolution, he acted an important part, and distinguished himself particularly in the battles of Long Island, Germantown and Monmouth. In the first, he was taken prisoner, after having, by a bold attack upon a corps commanded by Cornwallis, effected the escape of a large part of his detachment. In the second, his division, with the brigades of generals Nash and Maxwell, formed the corps de reserve; and, in the last, he commanded the left wing of the American army. He was always warmly attached to general Washington, and the cause which he had espoused.

He died at Albany, Jan. 15, 1783, aged 57 years, leaving behind him the reputation of a brave, discerning and intrepid officer, and an honest and learned man.

ALEXANDRIA (in Turkish, Scanderia); the capital of Lower Egypt, and the ancient residence of the Ptolemies, built 332 B. C., by Alexander the Great, who destined it to be the capital of his empire, and the centre of the commerce of the world. Its natural situation is strong, and it has five harbors. The Ptolemies, especially P. Soter, or Lagus, and P. Philadelphus, improved it much, and made it the seat of learning. (See Alexandrian School.)—The first inhabitants of Alexandria were a mixture of Egyptians and Greeks, to whom must be added numerous colonies of Jews, transplanted thither in 336, 320 and 312 B. C., to increase the population of the city and country, who, becoming familiar with the Greek language and learning, were called Hellenists. (q. v.) It was they who made the well-known Greek translation of the Old Testament, under the name of the Septuaginta. (q. v.) -The most beautiful part of the city, near the great harbor, where stood the royal palaces, magnificently built, was called Bruction. There was the large and splendid edifice, belonging to the academy and museum, where the greater portion of the royal library (400,000 volumes) was placed; the rest, amounting to 300,000, was in the Serapion, the temple of Jupiter Serapis. The larger portion was burned during the siege of Alexandria by Julius Cæsar, but was afterwards replaced by the library of Pergamus, which Antony presented to Cleopatra. The museum, where many scholars lived and were supported, ate together, studied and instructed others, remained unhurt till the reign of Aurelian, when it was destroyed in a period of civil commotion. The library in the Serapion was preserved to the time of Theodosius the Great. He caused all the heathen temples, throughout the Roman empire, to be destroyed; and even the splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis was not spared. A crowd of fanatic Christians, headed by their archbishop, Theodosius, stormed and destroyed it. At that time, the library, it is said, was partly burned, partly dispersed; and the historian Orosius, towards the close of the 4th century, saw only the empty shelves. Christian barbarians, therefore, and not Arabs under Omar, as is usually asserted, were the cause of this irreparable loss to science. The Alexandrian library, called, by Livy, Elegantiæ regum