their plan, so as to form a regular academy. One of these literary men was the count of Holstein, at whose suggestion Christian VI took the academy under his protection in 1743, endowed it with a fund, and directed the members to extend their studies to natural history, physics, and mathematics. It has published fifteen volumes, in the Danish language: some of these have been translated into Latin.-The Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was formed, in 1782, mostly of the members of the university, who assembled weekly. Its transactions have appeared regularly since 1788. As early as 1683, there was an academy in Dublin, but, owing to the distracted state of the country, it soon declined. In 1740, a Physico-Historical Society was instituted there, which published two volumes of transactions, still extant. This also soon declined. In Lisbon, the late queen established an academy of science, agriculture, arts, commerce and economy in general, consisting of three classes; those of natural science, mathematics and national literature, and comprising sixty members. It has published Memorias de Letteratura Portugueza, Memorias Economicas, together with scientific transactions and a Collecção de Livros ineditos de Historia Portugueza.

Academies for the promotion of particular departments of science.-1. Medical. The Academia Natura Curiosorum, at Vienna, called also Leopold's Academy, was formed in 1652. At first, it published its treatises separately, but after 1684, in volumes. Under Leopold I, who favored it in a high degree, it adopted the name Casareo-Leopoldina Natura Curiosorum Academia. Similar academies were established at Palermo, 1645, in Spain, 1652, at Venice, 1701, and at Geneva, 1715.-2. Surgical. A surgical academy was established at Paris, 1731, which proposes annually a prize question. The prize is a gold medal of the value of 500 livres. A surgical academy was founded at Vienna in 1783. Three prize medals, each of the value of 50 guilders, are yearly adjudged to the most successful students.-3. An academy of theology was established, in 1687, at Bologna.-4. Coronelli founded, in the beginning of the 18th century, a geographical academy at Venice, under the title of the Argonauts: the object is to publish good maps and descriptions of countries.-5. Historical. King John V founded, in 1720, a royal academy of Portuguese history at Lisbon, consisting of a director, four censors, a

secretary, and fifty members: the subject of their study is the ecclesiastical and political history of Portugal. In Madrid, an association of scholars was instituted about 1730, for the purpose of investigating and explaining the historical monuments of Spain. It was formed into an academy by king Philip V, in 1738. It consists of 24 members, and has published several ancient historical works; some for the first time, some in rew editions. The Academy of Suabian History, at Tübingen, was established for the purpose of publishing the best historical works, and the lives of the best historians, as well as for compiling new memoirs.-6. For the study of antiquities. An academy exists at Cortona, in Italy, for the study of Etrurian antiquities; another at Upsal, in Sweden, for the elucidation of the northern languages, and the antiquities of Sweden. Both have published valuable works. The academy which Paul II established in Rome, for the same purpose, soon came to an end, and the one founded by Leo X met with the same fate, after it had flourished some time. Others, less important, rose on their ruins. But all similar institutions were surpassed by the Académie des Inscriptions, at Paris, founded by Colbert, in 1663, for the study of ancient monuments, and for the perpetuation of the remarkable occurrences of their own country, by means of medals, statues, inscriptions, &c. At first, it had but four members, who were chosen from those of the French academy; but in 1701, the number was fixed at ten honorary members, ten associés, ten pensionaires, and ten élèves. They met semi-weekly in the Louvre, and held every year two public sessions. The class of élèves was finally abolished. The king annually appointed their president and vice-president. The secretary and treasurer held their offices for life. Their memoirs (from 1701-93) constitute 50 volumes, in 4to. It experienced the fate of all the French academies, and is now restored. The Herculanean Academy was instituted at Naples, in 1755, by the minister Tanucci, to explain the ancient monuments found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, &c. Their labors have appeared, since 1775, under the title Antichità di Ercolano. In 1807, Joseph Buonaparte founded an academy of history and antiquities at Naples, which has fallen into decay. The academy founded in the same year at Florence, for the explanation of Tuscan antiquities, has published some volumes of memoirs. In the same year,

likewise, a Celtic academy was established at Paris, the objects of which were the elucidation of the history, manners, antiquities and monuments of the Celts, especially those in France; also, researches into the etymology of all European languages by the aid of the Celto-Breton, Welsh and Erse dialects; together with investigations respecting the Druidical worship. Lenoir is its president. Its transactions appear under the title Mémoires de l'Académie Celtique.-7. For the improvement of language. The Accademia della Crusca, or Academia Furfuratorum, was formed in 1582, and first attracted attention by its attacks on Tasso. Its principal merit consists in having compiled an excellent dictionary, and edited with care several of the ancient poets of Italy. The Académie Française, formed in 1629, was then a private association; six years after, it was raised by Richelieu to the dignity of an academy of the French language, grammar, poetry and eloquence. The number of members was fixed at 40, and from them a director and a chancellor were elected every two months, and a secretary for life. Besides many other valuable works, it has published a dictionary of the French language, (first edition in 1694.) At Madrid, the duke of Escalona founded an academy for the improvement of the Spanish language, in 1714, which the king endowed with various privileges. It has done much towards purifying and perfecting the language, especially by the compilation of a dictionary. In Petersburg, an academy for the improvement of the Russian language was founded in 1783, and united with the academy of sciences. In Sweden, also, a royal academy of language was instituted in 1789.—Many literary societies are distinguished only by name from academies. Such are the Royal Society of Sciences, at Göttingen, founded in 1750; the Royal Society of England, founded in 1645. This society has made observations and experiments on most of the works of nature; has improved agriculture, navigation, naval, civil and military architecture, &c. It has registered experiments, observations, &c., and, from time to time, published the most valuable, under the title of Philosophical Transactions. The Royal Society of Dublin, for the encouragement of husbandry and the arts, established in 1731, has been one of the most active establishments of the kind in Europe. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established in 1783 Besides these, there

are the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1751; the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 1781; the literary associations of Haarlem, Flushing, Rotterdam, Brussels, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Upsal, &c. From Europe they have spread to the other quarters of the globe. In Asia there has been a society of arts and sciences, at Batavia, since 1778; a society of sciences at Calcutta, in Bengal, since 1784; and one at Bombay, to which we are indebted for the most important information respecting India and other parts of the East. The principal learned academies and societies in the U. S. of America, are the following: 1. The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, founded in 1769. This society has published nine volumes, 4to., of Transactions. In 1815, it appointed a large committee to superintend a historical department, which has published one vol. 8vo. 2. The Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, founded in 1791. It has printed 22 vols., 8vo., of Collections. 3. The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, founded in 1799, has published one vol. of Transactions. 4. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, founded in 1780, has published four vols., 4to., of Transactions. 5. The Historical Society of New York, founded in 1809, has published four vols., 8vo., of Collections. 6. The Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, founded in 1815, has published two vols., 4to., of Transactions. 7. The Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, founded in 1818, has published five vols., 8vo. 8. The Lyceum of Natural History, New York, founded in 1818, has published two vols., 8vo. There are, besides, the Historical Society of Concord, New Hampshire, the Essex Historical Society, Salem, Massachusetts, the Columbian Institute, at Washington, D. C., and some others; but their publications have been few.

Academies devoted to the promotion of the fine arts sprung up in the middle of the 16th century. The academy of Paris has been a model for many subsequent institutions of a similar character. The earliest union of painters, for objects similar to those of modern academies of art, was the fraternity, formed at Venice, in 1345, under the name of San Luca, which sprung from a society under the patronage of St. Sophia. However, neither this nor the society of San Luca, established at Florence, in 1350, bore the name of an academy. The Accademia di San Luca, founded at Rome, in 1593, by Frd.

effluvia of putrid substances infect the air. Here the yellow fever of the West Indies, and the cholera morbus of the East Indies, sweep away many strangers, and especially young Europeans. The calms, under the line, which frequently continue for a long time, are a natural obstacle, which renders a voyage from Callao to Acapulco more difficult, and often longer, than one from Callao to Cadiz. Steam-boats would be of great advantage in this quarter. In order to take advantage of the trade-winds, it is especially necessary to keep at a distance from the line. This, however, is impracticable on a coasting voyage from Acapulco to Callao. The exports hitherto from Acapulco have been mostly silver, indigo, cochineal, Spanish cloth, and some peltry, which comes from California and the northern part of Mexico. The imports consist of all the valuable productions of Asia.

ACARNANIA, now called Il Carnia and Il Despotato; an ancient country of Epirus, divided from Ætolia by the Ache

lous.

ACATHOLICI are, in general, those who do not belong to the Catholic church. In certain Catholic countries, Protestants are distinguished by this name, which is considered less odious.

ACBAR. (See Akbar.)

ACCELERATION. (See Mechanics.) ACCENT; the law which regulates the rising and falling of sounds or tones. Music and language, which are subject to this law, both originate in the feelings; and, although they at last separate from each other, and music remains the language of the heart, while speech, or language, properly so called, becomes the language of the mind, yet the latter does not entirely cease to speak to the heart; and music and language thus retain certain qualities in common; these are partly internal and partly external. Both are adapted to the expression of emotions; and thence arise the movements, sometimes slow and sometimes quick, which we perceive in them. They thus become subject to quantity or time; and we distinguish sounds, with reference to quantity, into long and short. In order to express an emotion distinctly and plainly, there must be a suitable arrangement of the organs for the sounds intended to be produced; for, in a series of sounds measured by the relation of time, and regulated also by relation to some fundamental tone, there will be found a cerLain connexion and association, which

represent the emotions in their various relations and gradations; it is this also, which distinguishes correctly what is of primary importance from what is secondary, renders the unimportant subordinate to the important, and gives proper weight to that which is significant. A succession of tones thus becomes a musical composition, which comprehends in itself a definite meaning or sense; and, to express this, particular regard must be had to the signification and importance of single tones in connexion. The stress, which is laid on the tones, according to the gradations of meaning, constitutes what we call accent. We distinguish the acute, or rising accent, the, grave, or falling, and the circumflex. The circumflex accent falls on those syllables or tones which are long in themselves; the grave properly denotes merely the absence of any stress; and thus we have only the acute left, to give a designation to tones. The reasons for designating a tone by accent, and dwelling on it longer than its established quantity requires, are either mechanical, rhythmical, or emphatical. We divide accent into grammatical and rhetorical, or the accent of words and of sentences, which last is called emphasis. The former rests on physical or me chanical causes; the latter has for its object the relations of ideas. The laws which govern both are briefly the following: A syllable or tone of the natural length receives the grammatical or verbal accent; but there are two causes, which distinguish some syllables of a word from the rest-their mechanical formation and their signification. In the word strengthen, for instance, mechanical causes compel the voice to dwell longer on the first syllable than on the second, and hence a greater stress is laid on that syllable. Rhetorical accent, or emphasis, is designed to give to a sentence distinctness and clearness. In a sentence, therefore, the stress is laid on the most important word, and in a word, on the most important syllable. Without attaching itself, in language, to the quantity of a word, or, in music, to a certain part of a bar, the accentual force dwells on the important part; and, in order that this force may be rendered still more distinguishable, it hastens over those parts, which, though otherwise important, the context renders comparatively unimportant. It follows, from what has been said, that the accent of words and the accent of sentences, or emphasis, may be united or separated at pleasure. It may now be asked,

whether emphasis destroys verbal accent and quantity; and whether, for this reason, euphony does not suffer from emphasis. In answering this question (in which lies the secret of prosody in general, and the difference between the modern and ancient), four points come under consideration : 1. If the accent coincides with a syllable which is long from mechanical causes, it elevates the syllable, and imparts stress to its prosodial length. 2. The accent does not render an invariably long syllable short, but deprives it, if it immediately follows the accented syllable, of a portion of its length. The quantity, therefore, if it does not coincide with the accent, may be somewhat weakened by it. 3. Although the accent cannot render an invariably long syllable short, it can change the relative quantity of common syllables. 4. The accent can never fall on syllables invariably short. These are the rules which are of the greatest importance, not only to the versifier, but also to the declaimer, and to the actor, so far as he is a declaimer.

The grammatical and rhetorical nomenclature of the English language is very defective and unsettled; and hence has arisen a great degree of confusion among all our writers on the subject of accent and quantity in English. We have perverted the true meaning of long and short, as applied to syllables or vowels; and, by our peculiar application of those terms, we have made ourselves quite unintelligible to foreign nations, who still use them according to their signification in the ancient languages, from which they are derived. An English writer of some celebrity (Foster, on Accent and Quantity), whose own work, however, is not free from obscurity, observes, that he has found the word accent used by the same writer in four different senses-sometimes expressing elevation, sometimes prolongation of sound, sometimes a stress of voice compounded of the other two, and sometimes the artificial accentual mark. For a long series of years, however, accent, as Johnson has remarked, in English prosody, has been the same thing with quantity; and another English writer of celebrity, bishop Horsley, observes, that it is a peculiarity of the English language that quantity and accent always go together, the longest syllable, in almost every word, being that on which the accent falls. In other languages, as Mitford justly remarks (Essay on the Harmony of Language), generally, the vowel character, representing indifferently a long or a short

sound, still represents the same sound, long or short. A contrary method is peculiar to English orthography. With us, the same vowel sound, long and short, is rarely represented by the same character; but, on the contrary, according to the general rules of our orthography, each character represents the long sound of one vowel and the short sound of another. This is eminently observable, as Dr. Johnson has remarked, in the letter i, which likewise happens in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, but a sound wholly different. In addition to the difficulties arising from an imperfect nomenclature, as above remarked, there is an intrinsic difficulty in the extreme delicacy of the distinctions of tone, pitch and inflections in language, and the want of an established notation, corresponding to that which we have in music; and, we may add, in the words of Hermann (De Emendanda Ratione Græc. Gram.), “Quam pauci vero sunt, qui vel aliqua polleant aurium subtilitate ut vocum discrimina celeriter notare apteque exprimere possint!"-The Chinese are said to have but 330 spoken words; but these, being multiplied by the different accents or tones which affect the vowels, furnish a language tolerably copious.

ACCEPTANCE. (Law.) An acceptance is an engagement to pay a bill of exchange according to the tenor of the acceptance, and a general acceptance is an engagement to pay according to the tenor of the bill. What constitutes an acceptance is, in many cases, a nice question of law; but the general mode is for the acceptor to write his name on some conspicuous part of the bill, accompanied by the word accepted. In France, Spain, and the other countries of Europe, where oral evidence in matters of contract is not admitted to the same extent as in England, a verbal acceptance of a bill of exchange is not valid.

ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY; a person guilty of an offence by connivance or participation, either before or after the act committed, as by command, advice, or concealment, &c. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as principals. Abettors and accomplices also come, in some measure, under this name, though the former not strictly under the legal definition of accessaries. An abettor is one who procures another to commit an offence, and in many, indeed in almost all cases, is now considered as much a principal as the actual offender. An accomplice is one of many persons