grims, of which he was the first chief. This order received, from the churches assembled at Clermont, A. D. 1096, the papal confirmation; took the monastic vows, A. D. 1218; and were declared by Boniface VIII, A. D. 1298, a fraternity of regular canons, according to the rules of St. Augustin; their chief was to be termed abbot, have his seat at St.-Didier-la-Mothe, and be the general of all the houses of that order. The priors of these houses called themselves comthure, afterwards preceptors, and were subject to the abbot. The dress of these Anthonians was black, marked on the breast with a blue cross, nearly in the form of a T. They afterwards altered the rules of their institution, and devoted themselves to a silent, contemplative life of devotion. This society became very rich by reason of the many pilgrimages to the grave of St. A., and the presents which they received. Their order now became widely extended. Even in the 18th century, they numbered 30 convents, mostly in France; but not one of them

has continued to the 19th.

ANTHONY, St.; a cape on the coast of Buenos Ayres. It forms the southern point of the entrance into the La Plata.There are 3 other capes of the same name, one of which forms the western extremity of the island of Cuba; another on the coast of Todos Santos in Brazil; another on the coast of the straits of Magellan.

ANTHONY, St., falls of, on the Mississippi; lon. 93° 40′ W.; lat. 44° 15′ N. The river is 627 yards broad above the falls, and immediately below it is contracted within a channel of 209 yards. An island divides the falls into 2 parts. The perpendicular height of the cataract is 16 feet, besides 58 feet more of a rapid below; so that, when viewed from a distance, it appears to be much higher than it really is. When the river is high, the appearance of these falls is very sublime, as the spray then formed reflects all the colors of the rainbow. The surrounding country is extremely beautiful, exhibiting many gentle ascents, with eminences covered with the finest verdure. The portage around the falls is 260 rods long. ANTHONY, St., island of; the most northern of the cape Verd islands. Topazes are found in one of its mountains, and it is said to contain mines of gold and silver. The inhabitants, chiefly Negroes, are about 580 in number.

ANTHONY of Padua, St.; born August 15, A. D. 1195, of a noble family in Lisbon; one of the most renowned disciples of St. Francis of Assisi, and a powerful

advocate of the Franciscan order, which he entered A. D. 1220; was shipwrecked on the coast of Italy, in a voyage to Africa, which he had undertaken with a view of becoming a martyr to the Christian faith, and preached, with great applause, at Montpellier, Toulouse, Bologna and Padua, where he died, June 13, A. D. 1231. His Legends are full of prodigies; but all agree in extolling his talents as a preacher. According to tradition, the very fishes were affected by his eloquence. The Catholic church, particularly in Portugal and Italy, honored him as one of its most eminent saints, among whom pope Gregory IX assigned him a place, A. D. 1232. At Padua, a church, containing his sepulchre, is consecrated to him, which is a master-piece of architecture.

ANTHRACITE (from Opas, coal) is the name of one of the most valuable kinds of coal used in the arts and domestic economy. Its mineralogical character is as follows: color, grayish-black, or iron-black; lustre, imperfectly metallic; opaque; specific gravity, from 1-4 to 1-6; fracture, conchoidal. Some varieties abound in fissures, in consequence of which they possess an irregular columnar structure, and a lower degree of lustre; while others are highly compact, of a black color, with a shining lustre, and occasionally highly tarnished with iridescent colors. Anthracite consists wholly of carbon, mixed with a slight and variable proportion of oxyde of iron, silex and alumine. It is inflammable with some difficulty, and burns without smell or smoke, leaving a more or less earthy residue. It is less widely distributed than the bituminous coal, and belongs exclusively to transition rocks. It has been found in several European countries, where, owing to its limited extent and other causes, its use appears to be but little known. In the U. States, on the contrary, it occurs in the greatest abundance, and, within the last 10 years, has acquired a high degree of importance. Its difficult combustibility was, for a time, an obstacle to its introduction; this, however, was obviated by the invention of peculiar furnaces and grates. It is now very largely used in all the maritime parts of the U. States, not only for manufacturing purposes, in which its utility is immense, but in the warming of apartments, both private and public; and its cheapness, the intensity and equability of heat it produces, together with its perfect safety, and freedom from all disagreeable smoke and smell, give it a decided preference over every other species of fuel.

274

In Pennsylvania, the anthracite coal formation is known to cover a tract of country many miles in width, extending across the two entire counties of Luzerne and Schuylkill. Mauch Chunk, upon the Lehigh, Pottsville, at the head of the Schuylkill canal, and Wilkesbarre, upon the Susquehanna, have afforded the chief supply of coal from this region, as well as the greatest proportion consumed in the U. States. At Mauch Chunk, 800 men were employed in digging coal, in 1825, in which year 750,000 bushels were sent to Philadelphia. The anthracite, throughout this region, is explored with very little labor, being situated in hills from 300 to 600 feet above the level of neighboring rivers and canals, and existing in nearly horizontal beds, from 15 to 40 feet in thickness, covered only by a few feet of gravelly loam. At Portsmouth, in Rhode Island, an extensive bed of this coal has been worked, with some interruption, for 20 years; and, more recently, a mine of anthracite has been opened at Worcester, in Massachusetts, at the head of the Blackstone canal.

ANTHROPOLITES; petrifactions of human bodies or parts of the body. (See Petrifactions.) Those of animals are called zoolites. ANTHROPOLOGY (from av0owtos, man, and Móyos, a discourse) signifies the science which treats of human nature, either in a physical or an intellectual point of view. It is frequently used to denote the science of anatomy. In theology, it denotes a way of speaking of God after the manner of men, by attributing to him human passions and affections. (See Philosophy.)

AnthropomorpHITES (from veownos, man, and upon, form); called also Audians; the adherents of Audius, or Audaus, a teacher in Syria, who was banished to Scythia, introduced Christianity among the Goths, and died about 370 after Christ. They were excommunicated by the orthodox church, rather on account of their persevering in the old way of celebrating Easter, at the same time with the Jewish Passover, their deviation from the usual penances, and their zeal against unworthy priests, than on account of their representation of God in a human shape. Towards the close of the 4th century, they still existed, as schismatics of severe morals, in small bodies in Syria; in the 5th century, they were extinct. The Italian divines at Vicenza, about the year 938, who were called Anthropomorphists on account of similar representations of God, formed no sect.

ANTHROPOPHAGI (from veрwnos, man, and payw, I eat); man-eaters, cannibals.

The practice of eating human flesh, unnatural as it may seem to us, is found to prevail among some nations. In some cases, hunger, in others, revenge, in others, superstition, is the motive; at least, it is reported that the Mexicans used to eat the flesh of the victims whom they had sacrificed to their idols. In some instances, a horrid desire for human flesh appears to have been occasioned by disease, like other perversions of the appetite. Thus a cowherd, namea Goldschmidt, who had committed a murder, and, in order to prevent discovery, had cut the body in pieces, is said to have felt a craving for human flesh arise within him, and, after devouring the body of the murdered man, to have killed an infant expressly for the purpose of gratifying his unnatural longing. (See Gruner's Almanac for Physicians (Almanach für Aerzte), 1782, page 312.) Boethius reports, in his history of Scotland, an instance, in which this disease seized a whole family. A robber, his wife and children, were burnt, because they had killed and eaten several persons whom they had enticed. into their dwelling. Only one daughter, who was very young, was left alive; but scarcely had she reached her 12th year, when she was executed for the same crime. That there are nations who eat the flesh of enemies slain in battle, e. g., the New Zealanders, is well known; but there are none who make human flesh their usual food, except, perhaps, the Battos in Sumatra, according to the report of Anderson (London, 1826). The cruelty of the first conquerors of America, the Spaniards, inflamed the gentle natives to a barbarous revenge; and they were calumniated as cannibals, to afford a better pretext for their destruction. Under this pretence, the Caribs were extirpated. Modern navigators have not confirmed those sweeping accusations of barbarism and cannibalism; and even where they have met with nations who ate human flesh (that of slaughtered enemies), they have found them mild and kind-hearted people. In Germany, during the reign of Joseph II, it was pretended that gipsies had been known to murder travellers, cut them in pieces, salt and eat them! Cannibalism prevailed among the savage Scythians and Sarmatians, also among the ancient inhabitants of Canaan.

ANTIBACCHIUS. (See Rhythmus.)

ANTIBES; an old town of Provence, in the department of the Var, on the Mediterranean, with a commodious harbor and a strong citadel. It was founded

by the Massilians, 340 B. C., and named Antipolis. A. now contains 500 houses, with 5270 inhabitants. It is an important barrier fortress on the side of Italy, and was, in 1747, besieged without effect by the Austrians and English. A. is remarkable for being the only place where the French soldiers refused to join Napoleon on his landing from Elba, in 1815. Lon. 7° 11' E.; lat. 43° 35 N.

ANTICAGLIA. (See Antique.) ANTICHRIST. In the last centuries before Christ, the Jews connected with their idea of the Messiah the notion of an Anti-Messiah, or an enemy to the attempts of the Messiah to promote the good of their nation, who would cause great sufferings before the advent of the latter. The books of the New Testament mention the Antichrist as one or several false prophets, who would pretend to be the true Christ, and would deceive the world. In the Apocalypse alone, he is represented as a powerful ruler, opposed to Christianity. The Christians, in the first centuries, retained the idea of such a powerful enemy of the church, whose appearance, announced by their own persecutions, would precede the reappearance of Christ, which was then commonly expected. With the belief of the millennium, which was to succeed the vexations of the church by the Antichrist, the idea of such a being continued under various forms, and heightened by the most lively descriptions on the part of the Christian fathers, until the year 1000 had elapsed without the fulfilment of these prophecies, and the millennial enthusiasm itself was cooled. The interpretation of the Apocalypse constantly occasioned new calculations on the appearance of the Antichrist. In the middle ages, the opponents of the Roman hierarchy eagerly applied this character to the pope, in whom not only the Waldenses, Wickliffites and Hussites, but even Luther and his friends, recognised the true Antichrist, as having placed himself against and above Christ. On the other hand, the Catholics bestowed this title on Luther and other reformers. Thus the idea of the Antichrist, as a dangerous enemy to the true church, remained under a variety of forms, without ever regaining universal acknowledgment. The fathers have generally agreed, that the Antichrist will appear, at the approach of the last day, in a bodily shape; but as to his origin, and time and place of appearing, their opinions differ. Some believe that he will be a mere man-"the man of sin, the son of perdition," spoken of by St.

Paul; and others, that he will be an incarnation of the devil. Malvenda, in a large work, consisting of 13 books, has given the most minute account of the birth, childhood, education, character, power, wars, persecutions and death of Antichrist. The church of Rome has never pronounced any decision with regard to the various notions its members have entertained on this subject. Napoleon was styled Antichrist by some persons, and several passages of the Apocalypse were referred to him. At present, the great party of fanatics, political and religious, perceive the Antichrist in human reason, or, rather, in the free use of it against the views and pretensions of fanaticism. Among the Jews, too, since the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the wonderful prophecy of a contest is preserved, in which an Antichrist, by name Armillus, will be vanquished by the true Messiah, after a severe oppres sion of the Jews.

ANTICYRA; a town of Phocis, in Greece, famous for the hellebore which it produced. This plant was of great service in curing diseases, particularly insanity, and A. was therefore much resorted to by the ancients; hence the expression of Horace, Naviget Anticyram.

ANTIGONE, the fruit of the incestuous marriage of Edipus and Jocasta, though innocent, bore the curse of her father's house. For her history, see the articles Eteocles and Edipus. Sophocles has immortalized her in a tragedy.

ANTIGONUS; one of the generals of Alexander, to whom, after his first conquests in Asia, he intrusted the government of Lycia and Phrygia. A. not only defended his provinces with very small forces, but also subdued Lycaonia. When, after the death of Alexander, his generals divided his conquests among themselves, he obtained the Greater Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia. Perdiccas, who strove to unite all the states of Alexander under his own dominion, and who feared the energy of Antigonus, accused him of disobedience to the commands of the king. A. saw through his intentions, embarked secretly for Europe, and connected himself with Craterus and Antipater. These three, then, together with Ptolemy, declared war against Perdiccas. The latter was killed by his own soldiers. Eumenes, the general of Perdiccas, was still, however, very powerful in Asia. A. continued the war against him alone, got him into his power, and put him to death. Thus, in a short time, he became master

276

of almost all Asia; for Seleucus, who reigned in Syria, and had endeavored to oppose his usurpations, was likewise overpowered by him, and sought shelter with Ptolemy. A. possessed himself, also, of the greater part of the treasures of Alexander at Ecbatana and Susa, but would not render an account of them to Ptolemy, Cassander and Lysimachus, and even declared war against Cassander, in order to revenge, as he said, the death of Olympias, and to deliver the young Alexander, who lived with his mother, Roxana, at Amphipolis. Disgusted by his ambition, all the generals united themselves against him; and, whilst Cassander attacked Asia Minor, Ptolemy and Seleucus invaded Syria, where they defeated Demetrius, the son of A. Seleucus retook Babylon. As soon as A. was apprized of these events, he returned, and obliged Ptolemy to retreat. Demetrius recovered Babylon from the hands of Seleucus. Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander concluded a treaty of peace, by which they were to retain, till the majority of the young Alexander, who bore the title of king, the territories in their possession. But, after the murder of the young king, with his mother, by Cassander, the war was rekindled among the competitors. A. tok the royal title, but was obliged to give up his plan of conquering Egyp: as part of his fleet was lost at sea in a storm, and Ptolemy frustrated every attempt at invasion by land. Soon afterwards, young Demetrius drove Cassander from Greece. He applied for aid to Lysimachus, who went with a powerful army to Asia; here Seleucus also joined him. Near Ipsus, in Phrygia, 301 B. C., a battle was fought by the three allies against A. and his son, in which A. fell, aged 84 years.-There are several other persons of the name of Antigonus mentioned in history.-A., king of Judea, son of Aristobulus. He besieged Jerusalem, was taken prisoner by Herod, and sent to Mark Antony, who put him to death, B. C. 36.-A. Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. He was distinguished by his mild and humane disposition. At his father's death, he succeeded him in the kingdom of Macedon, and all his other European dominions. He died, after a peaceful reign of years, B. C. 243. Demetrius II succeeded him.-Antigonus II, surnamed Doson, king of Macedonia, the son of Antigonus I, succeeded his brother, Demetrius II, B. C. 225, and was soon after chosen commander-in-chief of the Achæ

34

an forces by sea and land. A. defeated Cleomenes, king of Sparta, at Sellasia. He was succeeded by his nephew, Philip VI, B. C. 220.

ANTIGUA; an island in the West Indies, one of the Caribbees, 21 miles long, and nearly the same in breadth, upwards of 50 miles in circumference. It contains 59,838 acres of ground, of which 34,000 are appropriated to the growth of sugar and to pasturage; its other principal commodities are cotton, wool, and tobacco. Population, in 1817, 2,102 whites, exclusive of troops; 1,747 free people of color, and 31,452 slaves. Official value of exports, in 1809, £216,000; imports, £198,000. Antigua is divided into 6 parishes, and 11 districts. The name of the capital is St. John's. No island in this part of the West Indies can boast of so many excellent harbors. Of these the principal are English harbor and St. John's, both well fortified; and at the former the British government has established a royal navyyard and arsenal, and conveniences for careening ships of war. Lon. 61° 48′ W.; lat. 17° 5 N. Antigua constitutes, along with St. Christopher, Nevis, Montserrat, and those of the Virgin islands which belong to the English, a separate government. The governor, who is styled captain-general ofthe Leeward and Caribbean islands, generally resides at A., and occasionally visits the other islands. Antigua was discovered by Columbus in 1493. The first settlement was made, in 1632, by a few English families. In 1663, Charles II granted it to lord Willoughby. In 1666, a French expedition, uniting with the Caribs, invaded the island, laid waste the settlements, and committed great cruelties. The island was re-settled a few years afterwards, through the enterprise of colonel Codrington, of Barbadoes, who was appointed commander-in-chief of the Leeward islands. In 1706, and during the three succeeding years, Antigua was cursed by the government of a ferocious and unprincipled tyrant, whose varied crimes and tragical end will not soon be forgotten in the West Indies. The administration of governor Park seems to have resembled more closely the barbarous despotism of Nero or Caracalla than the governments of modern times. Ample vengeance was taken by the people, who, driven to madness by oppression, rose in a body, overpowered the regular troops, tore the living body of the oppressor limb from limb, and gave the fragments to beasts of prey. So well was this punishment thought to be deserved, that the British government rati

fied the act by granting a general pardon to all concerned in it, and shortly afterwards promoted two of the principal actors to public offices. No event of importance has occurred in the recent history of A., which still remains under the British government.

ANTILEGOMENA; a word in Scripture criticism denoting those books the authority of which has been disputed.

ANTILLES; a cluster of islands in the West Indies, extending in the form of a crescent from the coast of Florida to the mouth of the Orinoco, in Colombia. They are distinguished into Windward and Leeward islands, and into Greater and Less. The Greater comprehend Cuba, Hayti or St. Domingo, Jamaica and Porto Rico. The Less embrace Antigua, Barbadoes, St. Christopher, Guadaloupe, Martinico, Grenada, Trinidad, St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, St. Lucia, &c. (See West Indies.)

ANTILOCHUS; son of Nestor, it is said, by Anaxibia or Eurydice; the youngest soldier in the army of the Greeks before Troy; valiant and courageous, beautiful, and of great strength and activity; on this account the most favored, after Patroclus, by Achilles. He was, for this reason, according to Homer, chosen to announce to Achilles the death of Patroclus. He was called from the battle, flew to his friend, reported, with tears, the mournful tidings, and soothingly held the hands of the despairing Achilles. In the games in honor of the dead, he received the third prize in running, the value of which was enhanced by the praises of Achilles. He slew many of the Trojan chiefs in battle, and was once saved from the perils of fight by Neptune himself. He finally fell in the defence of his gray-haired father, who, when hard pressed by the Ethiopian Memnon, had called him to his aid (Pindar, Pyth. VI.), on which account the name Philopator has been given to him. His fall is represented in the Ilian Table, No. 48. United with his friends Patroclus and Achilles, he appears among the shades in the lower world. The other traditions respecting him are of later origin.

ANTIMACHUS; a poet, a native of Colophon, who is supposed to have lived in the 5th century B. C. Adrian, who placed Ennius before Virgil, preferred A. to Homer, a circumstance which renders the loss of his compositions a subject of great regret. The names of two of his works, the Thebaid and the Lydian, are preserved, and a fragment of A. is to be 24

VOL. I.

found in the Analecta of Brunck. The rest of his remains were published, in 1786, by Schellenburg, under the title of Antimachi Colophonii Reliquiæ.

ANTIMONY is a bluish-white, brittle metal, of a scaly or foliated texture; it has a brilliant lustre, but Jecomes tarnished by exposure to the air; its specific gravity is 6.7. In this state, it is called the regulus of antimony, and is used as an ingredient in the manufacture of the best pewter, in some type-metal, and in casting leaden medallions. By exposure to heat it melts, and, becoming oxydized, rises in dense white fumes, formerly called argentine flowers of antimony.-Antimony forms with oxygen several oxydes, with which the acids unite and give rise to numerous salts, the most important of which is the triple one, called tartrate of potash and antimony. It is manufactured in the large way by mixing one pound of glass of antimony with a pound of cream of tartar, and boiling the mixture in a gallon of water for an hour or two: it is then filtered, evaporated and set by to crystalize. Tartar emetic is the most generally used antimonial medicine; and it may be so managed as to produce either sweating, purging, or vomiting.-Antimony is found in its metallic state in minute quantities in several countries, and in occasional mixture with ores of silver, lead and copper; but it is from its combination with sulphur, in which state it occurs abundantly in Auvergne, Scotland and Hungary, that the antimony of commerce is furnished. This mineral, the sulphuret of antimony, is found in compact, foliated and radiated masses, as well as in distinct rhombic prisms. Its color is a light lead-gray; it is dull, and often iridescent. Specific gravity, 4.3. It melts in the flame of a candle, and before the blow-pipe, on charcoal, is wholly evaporated, with a sulphureous odor.-It is composed of antimony 72.86, and sulphur 27.14, and in its composition exactly resembles the artificial compound which possesses the same properties. To obtain the crude antimony of commerce, the above ore is reduced to fragments, and put into large earthen pots, with holes in their bottoms, and these are inserted into other similar vessels; heat is applied to the upper ones, which causes the sulphuret of antimony to separate from its stony gangue, and flow into the lower vessels, which are kept cold; here it concretes into fibrous, crystalline masses, without having undergone any change in its nature during the process. In this