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ANTIMONY-ANTIOCH.

condition, it constitutes the crude antimony of commerce. From this substance the regulus of antimony is prepared, by roasting the sulphuret of antimony in a reverberatory furnace, until it forms a gray oxyde, 100 weight of which is afterwards mixed with 8 or 10 pounds of argal, or crude tartar, and smelted in large melting pots in a wind-furnace. It also affords, by calcination and subsequent fusion in earthen crucibles, the glass of antimony, which is of so much importance in the preparation of tartar emetic. The Kermes mineral, a popular medicine, is likewise prepared from the sulphuret of antimony, by boiling crude antimony and pearlashes; the Kermes mineral is deposited in the form of a purplish-brown powder. The supernatant liquid, on the addition of any acid, yields an orange sediment, called golden sulphur of antimony, which is used by the calico-printers as a yellow color.

ANTINOMIANISM (opposition to the law); the name given, by the reformers of Wittenberg, to the disparagement of the moral law, particularly the law of Moses, by certain Protestants, who aimed thereby to exalt the efficacy of faith in the salvation of man. John Agricola was the most conspicuous member of this party, and, in 1537, violently attacked Luther and Melancthon on this ground, in a public dissertation, in Wittenberg. But, in 1539, he recanted, and published a renunciation of his errors, in 1540, at Berlin.-Antinomians is the name given to those who adhere to this doctrine, which had its origin in an erroneous apprehension of the grace of God and the insufficiency of good works.

ANTINOUS; a young Bithynian, whom the extravagant love of Adrian has immortalized. Whether he threw himself into the Nile, with the intention of preserving the life of Adrian, whom he accompanied on his travels, or because weary of his own life, is not to be decided. Adrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. Not satisfied with giving the name of his favorite to a newly-discovered star in the galaxy (which appellation is still preserved), he erected temples in his honor, called cities after him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. His image was, therefore, represented by the arts in every way. Several of these figures belong to the finest remains of antiquity, particularly the statue called the Antinous of Belvedere, in the Vatican, found in the bath of Adrian; and the A. of the Capitol, found in the villa of

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Adrian at Tivoli. Antiquaries, however, differ much in opinion concerning these statues, and many will not allow them to be images of A., but recognise in them the characteristics of certain heroes or gods. This dispute is difficult to be decided, because the artists, who represented A. as a god, chose divine ideals, to which they gave his features. The Vatican statue, which goes under his name, is probably a Hermes, the Capitoline probably a Hermes-Antinous. "In all the figures of A.," says Winckelmann, "his countenance has something melancholy; his eyes are always large, with good outlines; his profile gently descending; and in his mouth and chin there is something expressed which is truly beautiful." (See Levezow on A., represented in the Monuments of Ancient Art; Berlin, 1808.)

ANTIOCH, OF ANTAKIA (anciently, Antiochia, and Antigonia, and Theopolis, and Seleucis, and Epiphane, and Reblata), in Syria, 50 miles W. of Aleppo, lon." 36° 18 E., lat. 36° 6 N., once greater and richer than Rome itself, but often ruined by earthquakes, and finally razed by the Mamelukes, in 1269, is now only a small town. It was founded by Antigonus, and captured by Seleucus, who changed its situation, and called it Antioch, from his father, Antiochus. Long celebrated as one of the first cities of the East, it was the residence of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and of the Roman governors. It is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and the name Christians was first given to the disciples of Christ in this city (Acts, xi. 26). In the 7th century, it was taken by the Saracens, and, in the 11th, by the crusaders, who established a principality under the name of A. Boëmond was the first ruler. A. is situated on the Orontes, about 21 miles from the sea. The "Queen of the East" now exhibits hardly any relics of her former splendor; even the ruins are constantly thrown down by earthquakes. The population is less than 20,000; the houses are low, with only one story above ground; the streets narrow; and the whole appearance of the city is dull and melancholy. The banks of the Orontes are covered with mulberries, figs and olives, but the plain of A. is uncultivated. The governor here is called mohassel, and is dependent on the pacha of Aleppo, but appointed by the Porte. A. is also the residence of a Greek patriarch.-There was also another Antiochia (ad Pisidiam) in the Greater Phrygia, where the Romans settled a colony. It was famous for a temple of Luna.

ANTIOCHUS; a name of several Syrian kings, which makes an epoch in Roman history. The first who was known by this name, a Macedonian, and general of king Philip, was father of the famous Seleucus (q. v.), by his wife Laodice. The son of the latter, A. Soter, carried on many unsuccessful wars, and is chiefly known for his love of his step-mother, Stratonice. Though he endeavored to subdue his passion, it threw him into a lingering sickness, which continued till the king's physician, Erasistratus, perceived the cause, and disclosed it to his father, who, thereupon, from love to his only son, gave him his young and beautiful bride in marriage. One of his descendants was A. the Great, who succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, as king of Syria, 244 years B. C. He chastised Molo, governor of Media, and conquered Ptolemy Philopator, who was obliged to surrender all Syria. He was no less successful against the Parthians, and at length engaged in a contest with the Romans. This is the famous war of A., for which, with the aid of Hannibal, he made great preparations. He did not, however, enter fully into the plans of this general, and sent only one army to Greece, which remained inactive, and was defeated first at Thermopyla, and several times by sea, till, at length, he became so disheartened, that he did not even contest with the Romans the passage into Asia Minor, where they gained a victory at Magnesia, and obliged him to contract a disgraceful peace. Afterwards, attempting to take away the treasures from the temple of Jupiter Elymæus, he was slain, with all his followers. His second son, Epiphanes, who is represented, in the history of the Maccabees, as a most cruel oppressor of the Jews, attacked the Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philopator, and laid siege to Alexandria. But he afterwards abandoned it, as well as all Egypt, where the Romans took the part of Ptolemy. Many other Syrian kings, under the name of A., with various surnames, succeeded, till, at last, A. Asiaticus, was expelled from his dominions by Pompey, and Syria (see Syria) became a Roman province.

ANTIOPE; daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes (according to Homer, of the river Asopus), renowned through all Greece for her uncommon beauty. Epopeus, king of Sicyon, carried her off, and married her; but Lycus, the successor of Nycteus, who had promised him to punish his daughter, slew Epopeus, and carried A. prisoner to Thebes, where he deliv

ered her to his wife, Dirce, by whom she was treated with the greatest cruelty. A., however, was happy enough to escape, and to see herself avenged by her own sons, Zethus and Amphion, whom she boasted to have conceived in the embraces of Jupiter. The rest of her story is told in a variety of ways.

ANTIPAROS. (See Paros.)

ANTIPASCHIA, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes the first Sunday after Easter. It is also called dominica in albis.

ANTIPATER; a general, and a confidential friend, of Philip of Macedon. Alexander left him governor of Macedonia when he went to Asia. Although he filled this post with honor, reducing to obedience Memnon, a seditious governor of Thrace, and, after a hard-fought battle, overcoming the Spartans, who were struggling for independence, yet Olympias, the mother of Alexander, with whom he was constantly at variance, succeeded in making him an object of her son's suspicion; so that he summoned him to his presence in Asia, and appointed Craterus governor of Macedonia. But Alexander died before this change was accomplished. A. received Macedonia and Greece in the wellknown division of the empire, and was appointed guardian of the child with which Roxana, Alexander's widow, was then pregnant. Soon after, he was involved in a war with all the powers of Greece. At first, he was unsuccessful; but, when Leonatus and Craterus came to his assistance, the Greeks again submitted. This war was followed by another with Perdiccas, which terminated as happily. A. died 317 years B. C., at an advanced age, having confided to Polysperchon the guardianship of the young king. The assertion that he caused Alexander to be poisoned, is wholly unfounded.

ANTIPATHY; a natural enmity or aversion of one thing towards another. In a more restricted sense, antipathy denotes the natural aversion which an animated and sensitive being feels towards some object presented to it, either in reality or imagination, the cause of which is often mysterious and inexplicable. Such is the aversion of which some persons are conscious under the apprehension or at the sight of particular objects, as cats, mice, spiders, serpents, eels, &c. Many instances of antipathies are no better than fables, and a severe examination would reduce them to the class of vulgar errors. There are also fictitious aversions, having their source in affectation and a pre

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tended delicacy of nerves. The greater part of antipathies arise from prejudice; many from terrors inspired in infancy; and, in most cases, reflection and a gradual accustoming of ourselves to the objects of our dislike will weaken or remove the feeling of aversion; yet there are instances of incurable A., which seems to have its seat in the nervous system. ANTIPHLOGISTIC CHEMISTRY. (See Chemistry.)

ANTIPHONY (alternate song); applied particularly, in the Catholic church, to the verse which is first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir, after the psalm has been sung by the two parts of the choir alternately.-Also, a song of the priest, to which the choir or the congregation responds. Hence Antiphonarium, or Antiphonale, a large volume of Latin songs, from which the canons and other ecclesiastics sing antiphonies, hymns, collects, &c. The 87th psalm, 7th verse, proves that this mode of alternate singing formed a part of the old Jewish worship. Its introduction into the Christian church is ascribed to Ignatius, a father of the church, in the 1st century after Christ. The Western church is said to have received it more particularly from Ambrose. (q. v.) At the end of the 6th century, Gregory the Great composed an Antiphonary in honor of the virgin Mary, and the other saints. In the Protestant church, two sorts of antiphony are known. They consist either of whole psalms, as the Litany, or of only a few words of Scripture. The latter sort includes the introductory chant of the preacher, and the mutual response of the choir and the congregation. A species of English cathedral music is called an anthem or antiphony. Handel has composed several anthems.

ANTIPHRASIS. This may be defined a form of speech, in which we affirm a thing by denying it to be the contrary; as, He is no fool. It is also used, though less correctly, to signify a figure of speech, by which the name of any thing is derived from a quality it does not possess; e. g., the name of the Fates, Parca, from parcere, to spare, though to spare is foreign to their nature. So also the name of the Furies, Eumenides. Such appellations are usually ironical.

ANTIPODES; the name given to those inhabitants of the earth who are diametrically opposite to each other, and, of course, turn their feet towards each other. The name comes from the Greek vrt, against, and nous, a foot. The zenith of

the one is the nadir of the other. The antipodes live in similar but opposite latitudes, and their longitudes differ 180 degrees. Hence the difference in their days is about 12 hours, and their seasons are reversed. The spherical form of the earth naturally leads us to the idea of the antipodes, of whose existence some idea was entertained even before the age of Cicero. The fathers of the church, however, found in this theory a contradiction of the Bible, and, in the 8th century, Virgilius, archbishop of Saltzburg, was excommunicated for maintaining it. Circumnavigators of the globe first put the question beyond all doubt, and the opposition to the doctrine of the sphericity of the earth, and the existence of the antipodes, is now done away.

ANTIPOPE; thus are called all those who, at different periods, have produced a schism in the Roman Catholic church, by opposing the authority of the pope, under the pretence that they were themselves popes. This is the Catholic explanation, because it is evident that the Roman church cannot admit that there ever existed two popes; but the fact is, that, in many cases, both competitors for the papal chair (sometimes there were even three) were equally antipopes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of political interests, which induced particular governments to support a pope against the pope supported by other governments. Those were the most unhappy periods of the Roman church, when to many other evils were added violent contests between rival candidates for the papal chair, and the consciences of the honest believers were offended and perplexed by the excommunications which the adversaries thundered against each other. These quarrels, of course, lessened much the belief in the pope's sanctity and infallibility, shook the whole fabric of the church, and contributed much to prepare the way for the great reformation; but it would be unjust to throw on the popes alone the blame of these unhappy conflicts. They were natural consequences of the diminution of the dependence of the different governments on the papal see, resulting, in a great measure, from the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Another cause of these schisms was the diminished authority of the clergy, whose corruption and profligacy, in many countries, had given the greatest offence throughout Christen

dom. Of this the most melancholy proof may be found in almost any work of the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as in the proceedings of the councils. Those, for instance, of the councils of Constance and Basle, and some of the writings of Petrarca, who lived at Avignon when it was the seat of the papal court, are full of such facts and complaints of them. Only one antipope is recorded to have existed at an earlier period-Novatianus, a Roman priest and heretic, the rival of Cornelius, in 251. Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoy, was the last antipope. He was elected by the council of Basle, in 1439, in opposition to Eugene IV and Nicholas V. But he renounced his title in favor of the latter, in 1449. Similar scenes had taken place in the latter ages of the Roman empire. When that gigantic structure was fast verging to ruin, emperors rose against emperors, elected and supported by their soldiers in different quarters of the world. In fact, such divisions must always take place whenever a vast empire, spiritual or temporal, declines, and loses that energy which had conducted it to greatness. Thus we find in the Mohammedan history, at one period, many anticaliphs.

ANTIQUARIES; men who employ themselves in the study or collection of antiquities. In Italy, the ciceroni are often antiquaries. In England, and particularly in Scotland, there are important associations of antiquaries. In Germany, those booksellers who deal exclusively in old books, are called by this name, and the custom has extended beyond this country. In France, these dealers are ironically called bouquinists, from bouquin, a book of little value. In London, the most valuable collections may be found at Longman's and Lackington's; in Paris, at Renouard's; in Madrid, at Sancha's; in Rome, at de Romanis'; in Florence, at Molini's; in Utrecht, at Wild's and Altheer's; and in Leyden, at Luchtmans's. In Germany, Weigel in Leipsic, Meusel in Coburg, Hæssler and Nestler in Hamburg, and Sommerbrod in Berlin, are among the best known, and often have very valuable editions.

ANTIQUE. After the convulsions which attended the settlement of the tribes of the North and the East on the ruins of the Roman empire had, in some degree, subsided, and the nations of Europe began to enjoy, to a certain degree, the blessings of peace, a regard for science and the arts grew up among the rude conquerors, and revived in the minds of the vanquish

ed. In the midst of barbarism, the remains of Grecian and Roman civilization, literature and art appeared like the productions of a better and nobler world; and the word antiquus, applied to literature, science or art, became almost synonymous with excellent. By degrees, the relics of ancient literature were collected in libraries, and those of art in museums. It was not, however, till the 14th and 15th centuries, that the effects of the admiration and study of the numerous and continually increasing collections of antiques began to be perceptible, and first of all in Italy. What is termed modern art, in contradiction to ancient, then had its origin. This was based, indeed, on different principles from the ancient, inasmuch as it was influenced by the spirit of Christianity, of chivalry, and the prevailing character of the Teutonic nations. Still the noble impulse, which it received at this time, was derived almost entirely from the study of the remains of antiquity, to which the greatest masters of modern times devoted themselves most intensely; though their own works bear distinctly the stamp of their own characters, and of the age in which they lived. The great question then arises,-In what does the difference between ancient and modern art consist? To explain this, it would be necessary to go deeply into the nature of the fine arts; and, moreover, it can never be correctly understood without personal acquaintance with the great works of both. Some of the most striking diversities are, that the ancient art attaches more importance to the form; ancient art, also, aims particularly to express general ideas, and to give something of a general character even to individual representations; while the modern confines itself more to individual characteristics. To explain the reasons of the existing differences, would require a closer investigation of the religion and government, the science and social life of the ancients, as distinguished from those of the moderns. One of the principal causes is to be found in the different light in which man and outward nature are regarded, in the popular belief of antiquity, from that in which Christianity considers them. The ancient creeds gave a divine character to the outward creation, and represented the gods in the figures of men; while the Christian religion has been generally understood as inculcating contempt for all things earthly, and the Scriptures themselves continually connect the idea of sin with that of the world.We shall pursue these ideas farther, under

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tne articles Classical and Romantic, also in the article Philosophy.-When we consider the remains of Greek and Roman art, we find the former far superior; in fact, the Roman might be considered an after-blossom of the Greek, sprung from the immensely rich collections of antiques in Rome. Greek art was so pure and chaste, so truly based on nature, and yet strove so zealously after ideal beauty, that the study of its remains is, and must continue, indispensable to the artist and the connoisseur. Among the circumstances which contributed to produce its excellence, we may mention, in addition to the influence of the prevailing religion (which saw in the gods ideal men, raised men to the rank of gods, and personified every quality in its multitude of gods and demigods), the number of small states, and also the joint celebration of the Olympic games by all of them, the inventive and finely-tempered spirit of the people, their happy views of life, the mildness and beauty of the climate, and the fine marble which the country afforded in abundance. In painting, as we have already said, the moderns are superior, although the ancients had many excellent artists in this branch of art. In poetry, we cannot attribute to either the superiority. In architecture, both have reached a high degree of excellence. The Gothic architecture is esteemed, by many persons, as perfect as the ancient, though resting on very different principles; others, however, regard it as decidedly inferior. However much the remains of ancient art and literature deserve our admiration and study, there was a time when they were overrated, at the expense of the best productions of modern times. This was particularly the case when the real spirit of art had fled, and the power of invention was lost. It was reserved to the present age to value both according to their merits, which can never be impartially estimated, while one is made the standard of the other. Each must be studied and judged on its own principles.

ANTIQUITY. The word antiquity, old time, in opposition to new, is in itself indeterminate, but is, in general, applied to the time which elapsed between the creation of the world and the irruption of the barbarians into the Roman empire, which, in connexion with the wide spread of Christianity, makes a great epoch in the history of the human race. In a narrower sense, it is applied to the two principal nations of former times, Greece and Rome, or to the early age of any nation. The

name antiquities is given to the remains of ancient art. The phrase is used in a wider sense, to signify all which belongs to a knowledge of the politics, manners, religion, literature and arts of the nations of antiquity, or of the modern nations, until the existing order of things commenced. We have no single work giying such a general picture of nations and states, but only separate treatises on the antiquities of the Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, Etrurians, Gauls, Germans, Britons, &c. The want of a knowledge of antiquities was first felt in the 15th century, when the zeal for classical learning began to revive. In the earlier works on this subject, one finds extensive learning, but no fixed plan, no critical division of the time and subjects. In the 18th century, the rich collections of materials, which had formerly been made, were critically examined and systematically distributed. The Bibliographia Antiquaria of Fabricius (Hamburg, 1713–1716) contains valuable information, especially the new edition by Schaffshausen (1740), to which it is desirable that some additions should be made. Among the principal works treating of Grecian and Roman antiquities are, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum, by Gronovius (Leyden, 16971703, 13 vols.); Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum, by Grævius (Utrecht, 1694— 99, 12 vols.); Novus Thesaurus Antiqu. Roman. by Sallengre (Hague, 1716—19, 3 vols.); and Poleni Utriusque Thes. nova Supplem. (Venice, 1737, 5 vols. fol.) Burmann has left a Catalogus Librorum qui in Thes. Rom., Græc., Italico et Siculo continentur (Leyden, 1725). The information collected by these antiquaries has been revised and arranged by later scholars. A very useful work on Roman antiquities is Sam. Pitisci Lexicon Antiquit. Roman. (Leyden, 1713; Venice, 1719, 3 vols.; Hague, 1737, 3 vols.), an edition of which appeared at Berlin, 1793. The assistance which these works afforded to the scholar, desirous of obtaining a just idea of Grecian and Roman literature and history, stimulated the students of the Oriental languages to similar labors. Their attention was directed to Hebrew antiquities, on account of the connexion between Hebrew literature and customs and the evidences of Christianity. On the subject of Hebrew antiquities, Iken, Faber, Warnekros, Bellermann, Jahn and others, have given us books as useful as they are interesting. On the antiquities of the other nations of the East, the Asiatic Researches, and the labors of Goguet, furnish

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