288

belonging to it. This wall was the third rampart built by the Romans against the incursions of the North Britons. It is called, by the people in the neighborhood, Graham's dyke.

ANTONIO, Nicholas; a native of Seville in Spain; born in the year 1617. After 22 years spent at Rome, in the capacity of agent-general for Spain, he returned to Madrid, and obtained a seat at the council-board. His works are, Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus, in 2 folio volumes; De Exilio, Lib. iii., folio, published in 1659; Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, 2 vols. folio, 1672, reprinted in 1783; and Censura de Historicis Fabulis, folio, 1742. His library was of great value. He died 1684.

ANTONIO, St.; a Dutch fort of Axim, on the Gold Coast of Africa. It belongs to the West India company.-This is also a name of one of the cape de Verd islands, separated from St. Vincent by a narrow, navigable channel, 15 miles broad. The inhabitants, mostly Negroes, about 500 in number, live, notwithstanding all the plenty of the island, in wretched poverty. Lon. 0° 26′ E.; lat. 18° 4′ N.

ANTONIUS, Marcus, the triumvir, son of the prætor, and grandson of the orator of the same name, born 86 years B. C., was connected with the family of Cæsar by his mother Julia, a lady of distinguished excellence. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To study eloquence and the art of war, he went to Greece, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria. He showed much activity and courage here, as well as in Egypt, where he aided in the establishment of Ptolemy Aule

tes.

The soldiers, whom he treated with extreme generosity, indulgence and confidence, conceived a strong affection for him. In Rome, he united with Curio, and, like him, supported the party of Cæsar. He became augur and tribune of the people; but some of his projects excited such odium against him, that, with Curio and Cassius Longinus, he fled for refuge to the camp of Cæsar. This became one of the pretences for civil war. At the breaking out of this war between Cæsar and Pompey, A. was appointed by Cæsar commander-in-chief in Italy: he afterwards led a considerable force to Epirus, to his assistance. In the battle of Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing, and afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of master of the horse and governor of Italy. He degraded himself so deeply by acts of excess and violence, that, on his return, Cæsar treated him

with great coldness. About this time, he married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius, who long ruled him. When Cæsar returned from Spain, A. regained his favor by the basest flattery, and, B. C. 44, became his colleague in the consulship. At the Lupercalia, he threw himself publicly at Cæsar's feet, and thrice offered him a diadem, which he exhibited amid the shouts of the people. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, and A. would have shared the same fate, had not Brutus, who hoped to gain him over for the republic, stood up in his defence. A. delivered, over the body of Cæsar, a funeral oration, in the course of which he spread out his garment stained with blood, and thus excited the people to anger and revenge. The murderers were obliged to flee, and A. long ruled with unlimited power. After having many times quarrelled with young Octavius, the heir of Cæsar, who aspired to the supreme power, and, from political motives, took the side of the senate, he was reconciled to him, and went with an army to Cisalpine Gaul, the government of which fell to his share, and laid siege to Mutina, which Decimus Brutus valiantly defended. In the mean time, Cicero delivered his famous orations against him. The senate declared him a public enemy, and both consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, accompanied by Octavius, met him in the field. At first, A. vanquished Pansa in a bloody battle, but Hirtius hastened to his aid, and A. was subdued. Both consuls, however, fell, and Octavius took the head of the republican army. A. fled with his troops over the Alps, amid great difficulties and privations. Lepidus then commanded in Gaul, and A. fled to his camp in mourning garments, and soon gained the affections of the army, so that Lepidus was obliged to resign the command to him. Plancus, also, and Pollio, strengthened his party with their forces; so that A., who, a short time before, had fled from Italy, returned now at the head of 23 legions and 10,000 horse. Octavius, who had hitherto appeared to be a supporter of the senate, and a defender of republican freedom, now suffered the mask to fall off. He marched against A. and Lepidus, and, on the small island of Reno, not far from Bologna, or, according to some, on the island of Panaro, near Modena, had that memorable meeting with them, in which they divided among themselves the whole Roman world. Here they decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies: each gave up

his friends to the other. Upon this, the triumviri marched to Rome, and their steps were marked with murder and rapine throughout Italy. A. caused Cicero's head and right hand to be fixed up, as a spectacle, on that same rostrum from which his eloquence had so often been victorious. 300 senators and 2000 knights perished in this proscription. When the sum of money necessary for the war was procured, viz. 200,000,000 sesterces (about 6,300,000 dollars), and the triumviri had appointed magistrates for several years, B. C. 42, A. and Octavius departed for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army. At Philippi, A. commanded in an engagement against Cassius, who, when he perceived the event of the fatal battle, ordered one of his slaves to stab him. After the second battle, Brutus, also, destroyed himself. At the sight of his body, A. discovered the deepest emotion, covered it with his cloak, and gave orders that it should be interred with the highest honors. He then went to Greece, visited the public schools at Athens, and manifested his admiration of this city, splendid even in its ruins. Thence he proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia, he ordered Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behavior to the triumviri. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him forever. He followed her to Alexandria, where, in a constant course of dissipation, he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy, between his wife, Fulvia, and Octavius. A short war followed, which was decided in favor of Octavius, before the arrival of A. in Italy. The death of Fulvia facilitated a reconciliation, which was sealed by the marriage of A. with Octavia, the sister of Octavius. The two armies made a new division of the Roman dominions. A. obtained the East, Octavius the West. For mere form, Africa was consigned to the feeble Lepidus. With Sextus Pompey, who ruled the Mediterranean, a treaty was made. Upon this, A. went to Athens, made a campaign against the Parthians, which brought him but little honor, and then returned to Italy. By the interposition of Octavia, there appeared to be perfect harmony between the triumviri; but, after his return to Asia, A. gave himself up to a most abandoned course of life; lavished upon Cleopatra, without regard to the interests of the state, whole kingdoms and

VOL. I.

25

provinces; and exercised the most open injustice. After a second disgraceful campaign against the Parthians, he took Artavasdes, king of Armenia, prisoner, by treachery, accusing him of want of fidelity, and carried him, in triumph, to Alexandria. Octavius excited against A. the displeasure of the Romans, by a relation of his conduct. War between the two rivals was inevitable, and both began to prepare for it. Amid a round of pleasures, A. neglected his most important affairs, and filled the island of Samos, the rendezvous of his troops, with musicians and revellers, and, at the same time, divorced Octavia. These measures were followed by disapprobation as universal as the knowledge of Octavia's magnanimity and the hatred of Cleopatra's arrogance. At length, war was declared at Rome against the queen of Egypt, and A. was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and A. lost, in the naval battle at Actium (q. v.), B. C. 31, the dominion of the world. He disgracefully followed Cleopatra in her flight. The army on land waited in vain for his arrival, and at last surrendered to the conqueror. Upon this, he went to Libya, where a considerable host, which he had left there, was his last hope. On his arrival, he perceived that it had embraced the party of Octavius, and his grief on the discovery was so great, that he was, with much difficulty, prevented from committing suicide. He returned to Egypt, and lived in obscurity, till Cleopatra succeeded in bringing him back to her palace and to his former mode of life. Her festivals were interrupted by the arrival of Octavius, who refused all proposals of submission. At his appearance before Alexandria, A. seemed to recover all his former courage. He marched out at the head of his cavalry, and repulsed the hostile forces; but afterwards, deserted by the Egyptian fleet and his army, and suspecting that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, he again lost his courage. He retired to the palace of the queen, in order to take vengeance upon her; she fled, however, and deceived him by a false report of her death. Resolved to dic with her, he fell upon his own sword, B. C. 30. Plutarch relates, that A. commanded his slave Eros to slay him; the slave, pretending to be ready to obey, requested him to turn away his face, and then, stabbing himself, fell dead at his feet. Moved by this exhibition of heroic affection, A. threw himself upon the

290

same sword. On being told that Cleopatra was still alive, he caused himself to be carried into her presence, that he might die in her arms. (See Augustus and Cleopatra.)

ANTONY, Mark. (See Antonius, Marcus.) ANTRAIGUES (Emanuel Louis Henry Launey), comte d'. This man, who became distinguished as a statesman during the revolution, was born in Bivarais. His tutor, the famous abbé Maury, early cultivated his talents for a splendid and captivating, though unsubstantial eloquence. He made the first public display of his talents in the renowned Mémoire sur les États Généraux, leurs Droits et la Manière de les convoquer, A. D. 1788, in which his love of liberty, extending to the entire condemnation of all despotic governments, and the justification of resistance, was expressed with such force, that, in the excitement of the age, the work was honored with the greatest applause, and may justly be regarded as one of the first sparks that lighted the flame of the French revolution. But when he was appointed deputy to the states general, in 1789, he defended the privileges of hereditary nobility, was among those who most violently opposed the intended union of the three estates, and voted for a constitution fixing the rights of man, or rather of citizens, in which he declared the veto of the king an indispensable support of monarchy. In 1790, he left the assembly, renounced his oath of citizenship, with certain limitations, was accused of disturbing the public peace, openly defended himself, and then went to Petersburg and Vienna, engaged, continually, in diplomatic business. He was now the most zealous defender of monarchy and the Bourbons, Having been sent from Russia to Italy, in 1798, he was imprisoned, by order of Bonaparte, at Milan. His wife, the renowned opera singer St. Huberti, procured for him the means of escape. He returned to Vienna, and then to Russia, where, in 1803, he was made counsellor of state by Alexander I, and sent on public business to Dresden. He wrote here a remarkable work_against Napoleon-Fragment du 18me Livre de Polybe, trouvé sur le Mont Athos. After is return to Russia, he found means to become acquainted with the secret articles of the peace of Tilsit, went to England, and communicated them to the ministry, by which means his influence became so great, that Canning did nothing in relation to France without his advice. He maintained his diplomatic

connexions, especially in France, and was every where esteemed one of the first politicians on the stage. In spite of his attachment to the Bourbons, and his numerous struggles in their behalf, he did not succeed in gaining, entirely, the confidence of Louis XVIII. In 1812, he was murdered, in a village near London, to gether with his wife, by his servant Lorenzo, an Italian, who, immediately after, shot himself also.

ANTWERP (Anvers, French; Amberes, Spanish; Antwerpen, German and Dutch); a large, well-built capital of a province of the same name in the Netherlands, which, in 1814, was formed out of the former marquisate of A. and the lordship of Mechlin, which, under the French government, had composed the department of the two Nethes. The province contains 1017 square miles, and 287,347 inhabitants. The city lies on the Scheldt; E. lon. 4° 24′; N. lat. 51° 13'. The largest vessels can ascend the river to the wharfs of A. on 8 chief canals and 3 basins, built by the French. The city contains 60,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, has a citadel, more than 10,000 houses, among which is the magnificent exchange, the oldest in Europe; also the council-house, the cathedral, in which Rubens (whose family was from A.) lies buried, the ample house of the Ostrelins (the former warehouse of the Hanseatic league), &c. A. is the see of a bishop, contains an academy of sciences, an academy of painting and sculpture, a medico-surgical school, and a marine arsenal. Its manufactures of laces, sugar, white lead, litmus, cotton cloth and fine thread are very important. Its sewing-silk, black silk stuff and printers' ink are known throughout Europe. Its commerce has greatly increased since the Scheldt was once more opened; and, in 1828, 955 vessels, amongst which were 73 from America, entered this port. Before the war of the Netherlands with Spain, A. was even more important than Amsterdam, which increased very much by the decline of A., in the 16th century. At that time, the Scheldt was covered with vessels belonging to all nations, of which, at one time, 2500 lay in the harbor. An animated description of the commerce and activity of A., at that period, is given in Schiller's introduction to his Thirty Years' War. It then had 200,000 inhabitants, and the Hansa, the famous league of the Hanse towns, had numerous warehouses here. The first. blow was given to its prosperity by the memorable siege under the prince of Par

ma, in 1585, and it was entirely ruined by the closing of its harbor after the peace of Westphalia. Joseph II attempted in vain to open the Scheldt. This was not done till after the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands by the French. The Scheldt was then declared free, and commerce would soon have revived, had not Napoleon made the place a military depot. In 1814, it was besieged by the English and Saxons under Graham, and defended by Carnot, who did not surrender it till the 5th of May, after the armistice with Monsieur had been concluded. Carnot's conduct was such, that he gained the admiration of all soldiers and military connoisseurs, and the love of the people of A., though they hated the French, and suffered much from the siege. Van Dyk, both the Teniers, Seyher, Crayer, Floris and Brili were born here.

ANUBIS; one of the most distinguished deities of the Egyptians. At first, he was worshipped under the form of a dog; afterwards, under that of a man with a dog's head; hence he was termed Cynocephalus. Tradition calls him a son of Osiris by Nephthys, whom he mistook for Isis. When Isis was convinced of this by the lotus wreath left with Nephthys by Osiris, she sought out the child, exposed by his mother for fear of Typhon, discovered him, with the help of a dog, educated him, and found in him a faithful guard and attendant. A. guards the gods as the dog guards men. So says Plutarch. According to Diodorus, Osiris was accompanied on his expeditions by A., and Macedon, another of his sons. A. carried a helmet covered with a dog's skin, and was therefore worshipped in the form of a dog.-According to the astronomical theology of the Egyptians, he was the 7th among the 8 gods of the first class, and designated the planet Mercury, as did also Piernies, the more common name of the planet. He was, consequently, lord of the ascendant for an hour of the day, and genius of wisdom. His original form was derived, probably, from the worship of the dog among the Egyptians, who regarded him as the god of hunting; then he became, according to Zoega, a guardian spirit in general, a protector of the gods. The Greeks recognised in him their Hermes, with whom, therefore, he became confounded. ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', first geographer of the king, pensionnaire of the academy of inscriptions and fine arts, &c., was born at Paris, in 1697. A map, which chance put into his hands,

awakened his love for geography, at the age of 12. He began to sketch regions mentioned in the Roman historians, and directed all his studies to geography. He read the ancients only to ascertain the position of cities, and to fix the limits of the remote kingdoms, of which we find traces in history. Thus he early acquired an extensive knowledge of geography, became acquainted with the learned, and, at the age of 22, received the office of geographer to the king. He now began to examine and set in order the mass of his knowledge, and acquired a nice tact, resembling instinct, which was the result of ingenious and careful comparison. Almost every where, his accuracy was rewarded by the discovery of truth. The highest estimation is due to him as a critic, and most of his opinions and conjectures have been verified by later inquiries on the spot. He has published 211 maps and plans, and 78 treatises. His atlas of ancient Egypt is the most deserving His Orbis Veteribus notus, and his Orbis Romanus, ought to be in the hands of all who read ancient history. So, also, his maps of Gaul, Italy and Greece. His maps of the same countries for the middle ages are of equal value. His maps of modern times are as good as could be formed of the materials in his possession. He was modest and unassuming, although too irritable when censured. The natural delicacy of his constitution did not hinder him from laboring 15 hours daily. Two years before his death, his mental powers sunk beneath the infirmities of age. He died in 1782. His valuable collection of maps was purchased by the government in 1779.

AONIAN MOUNT; Parnassus (q. v.); the residence of the Muses. The name Aonia was sometimes given to a part of Boeotia.— Aonides; one of the many names given to the Muses. Aones (as) were a chain of mountains, of which Helicon was one.

AORTA; the great artery, which rises immediately out of the left ventricle of the heart. It is divided into two grand trunks, distinguished by the epithets ascending and descending. (See Artery.)

APANAGE; an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house (in which the right of primogeniture prevails, as is now generally the case) receive from the revenues of the country, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank. It consists mostly in money, with the use of a princely castle and hunting-grounds, attended, frequently, with the right of jurisdiction over

these domains. When it is once fixed, it passes to the descendants of the apanaged princes, sprung from a lawful marriage, of a suitable rank, and, in their default, commonly falls into the hands of the reigning sovereign. Sometimes it is added to the possessions of the surviving apanaged princes. A tract of land with the right of ruling it, set aside for an apanage, is called paragium.

APE. This designation, often indiscriminately applied to the members of the monkey tribe, was first properly restricted by Ray, the precursor of Linnæus, to those quadrumanous animals which, in structure, most closely approximate to the human configuration. In speaking of apes as distinguished from monkeys, we have reference to those genera of the great family quadrumana, which have neither tails nor cheek-pouches, attain nearly to human height, and present a facial angle, varying from 65° to 30°. The apes at present known are classed differently by different naturalists: Cuvier considers them all as species of one genus; Desmarest, whose arrangement, in this instance, we prefer, places them under the three genera, troglodytes, pithecus and pongo, the 2d of which he divides into two sub-genera, orangs proper, having no gluteal callosities, and gibbons, or long-armed apes, having callosities. The species are, troglodytes niger, the chimpanzee or orang-otang, which is a native of Africa, especially of the coasts of Angola and Congo; pithecus satyrus, the red orang, found in the most eastern parts of Southern Asia, particularly in Cochin China, Borneo and Malacca; pithecus lar, the great gibbon, a native of the Molucca islands, Coromandel, &c.; pithecus leuciscus, the wou-wou (so called on account of its cry), found in the same countries; pithecus syndactylus or siamang, and the pithecus agilis or active gibbon, both from Suma

tra.

As to the pongo, Cuvier has given excellent reasons for believing it to be nothing but the first-mentioned species in a state of maturity.-Like all the fourhanded animals, the apes are destined to live among the branches of trees, and are especially adapted, from their size and strength, to occupy large forests. All of them have the power of assuming a nearly erect position, though on the ground this is by no means convenient, as they stand upon the outer edges, being unable to apply the palms of the posterior hands fairly against the soil, and require a staff, or other support, to maintain this attitude,

except when they have been taught to stand erect by man.-They generally live in troops, and some of the species are said to construct a sort of hut of leaves, as a defence against the weather. They defend themselves with clubs, and employ these weapons with considerable effect, even against the human race. They are frugivorous in a state of nature, but, from the resemblance of their teeth to those of the human species, it is very evident that their diet may be almost as various as that of man. Some of them, the gibbons, are very remarkable, from the exceeding length of their superior extremities, the arm being so long that the hands hang near the ground when the animal is in the erect position. This singular conformation serves to adapt these creatures to their situations, in a manner which would scarcely be imagined, without having been witnessed. They spend their days chiefly upon the tops and branches of lofty trees, canes and bamboos, and, in passing from one to the other, are forced to make great leaps. The advantage of their vast length of limb is then rendered evident, as the gibbons would be unable to cling with their hinder hands to a long, flexile branch, swayed in various directions by the breeze, were it not that they cau maintain their position by balancing themselves with their long arms. On the loftiest branches of the gigantic eastern forest trees, troops of these animals are seen sitting balanced in perfect security, and some of the species at sunrise and sunset scream forth discordant cries from such positions. circumstances occur to disturb these orisons, the apes disappear with amazing celerity into the depths of the forest, springing from tree to tree, swinging themselves to great distances by their long arms, and catching as readily at the next object with the posterior hands. The orangs of Borneo attain to the greatest size, growing to be five or six feet high; and travellers speak of apes of a still larger size. They are represented, with justice, as terrible animals, and are endowed with unexampled strength of limb, one adult ape being more than a match for several unarmed men. They cause much terror to the natives residing near their haunts, and commit great ravages among the plantations of fruit, &c.-The orang most frequently exhibited and closely observed in captivity is the chimpanzee, jocko or wild man of the woods, commonly called orang-otang (S. troglodytes, L.) This species is an inhabitant

If any