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its cultivation in England. James Grey Jackson, in the 20th page of the same journal, asserts that this plant grows also in the country of Sus, on the south side of the Atlas, and is called, by the Arabians, aracatscha, or atschu, i. e. dry root. How did it find its way to America, and maintain its original name there? Had the old Arabians more knowledge of navigation than is commonly supposed? Or shall we believe that a former continent, by name Atlantis, has sunk below the ocean, which, before its destruction, formed a connexion between Africa and South America?

ARACHNE, daughter of Idmon, a dyer of purple, at Colophon, in Ionia, had learned from Pallas the art of weaving, and ventured to challenge her teacher to a trial of skill. In vain did the goddess, in the form of an old woman, forewarn her of the consequences of her folly. The contest began, and A. prepared, with much skill, a web which represented the amours of Jupiter. This irritated Pallas, who tore the web in pieces, and struck A. on the head with the shuttle. A. hung herself in despair. The goddess restored her to life, but changed her into a spider. ARACHNOLOGY, or ARANEOLOGY; the art of deciding on the changes of the weather from the motions and works of spiders. Intimations of it appear even in Pliny (H. N., book xi., sect. 28). It is also treated of in the Ewigwahrenden Practica (Things of everlasting Value), which appeared at Gorlitz in 1588. In later times, Quatremère Disjonval, once member of the academy of sciences at Paris, during an 8 months' imprisonment, in which some spiders were his only companions, made various observations on the subject, and, in 1797, at Paris, made known his discovery of the close connexion existing between the appearance or disappearance, the labor or rest, the greater or less circumference of the webs and fibres, of spiders of different sorts, and the atmospherical changes from fair weather to rain, from dry to wet, and particularly from hot to cold, and from frost to a milder temperature.

ARACK, or RACK; a strong spirituous liquor, distilled from rice, sugar-cane, or the juice of the cocoa-nut. The last, which is the best, comes from Batavia; the others, from Goa. At Goa, there are 3 kinds-single, double, and treble-distilled. The double is most sought, although weaker than the Batavian.

ARAFAT, or GIBEL EL ORPHAT (the mountain of knowledge or of gratitude), in Arabia, near Mecca. The Mohammed

ans say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife, Eve, after they had been expelled from Paradise, and separated from each other 120 years. On the summit is a chapel ascribed to Adam, rifled, in 1807, by the Wahabees. The mountain not being large enough to contain all the devotees that come annually on pilgrimage to Mecca, stones are set up round it, to show how far the sacred limits extend. The latest description of a celebration is by the indefatigable traveller Burckhardt (q. v.), who visited the place in July, 1814. He estimates the number present at 70,000. The camp covered a space of between 3 and 4 miles long, and from 1 to 2 broad, containing 300 tents and 25,000 camels. In this Babel, he reckoned about 40 languages, and had no doubt there were many more. The sermon delivered on the mount constitutes the main ceremony of the Hadj, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges of a Hadjy. The hill is about 200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit. After concluding the ceremonies at A., the pilgrims set out for Mecca, passing through the valley of Muna, on their return, in which they spend some time in stoning the devil. This ceremony consists in throwing stones against small pillars set up at each end of the valley. Each completes 63 jaculations. 6 or 8000 sheep and goats are then sacrificed. The third day brings them back to Mecca, where some further ceremonies finish the festival.

ARAGO, Dominique-François, born at Estagel, in Perpignan, Feb. 28, 1786, as early as 1804, was an instructer in the polytechnic school. In 1805, he became secretary of the bureau des longitudes. With Biot, and the Spanish commissaries Chaix and Rodriguez, after Delambre and Méchain had measured the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, he continued the measurement to the island Formentera. When the French army entered Spain, A. was imprisoned by the Spanish officers, and remained several months in Rosas. Attempting to return to France by sea, he was taken and carried to Algiers by a corsair. In 1809, the then French consul procured his freedom. He had, fortunately, preserved his apparatus, and all his observations and calculations. The latter formed a continuation of the Base du Système métrique, published before, by the institute, under the following title: Recueil d'Observations géodésiques, astr. et phys., exécutées par Ordre du Bureau des Longi

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tudes, en Espagne, pour déterminer la Variation de la Pesanteur et des Degrés terrestres sur le Prolongement du Méridien de Paris; réd. p. Biot et Arago; 4to. A. took the place of Lalande in the national institute, and, in 1816, became a member of the 3d class of the academy of sciences. At present, he is principally devoted to physics, particularly to investigations relating to the theory of light and galvanism.

ARAGON, Tullia d', a poetess of the 16th century, descended from an illegitimate branch of the royal family of Spain. Her father, Pietro Tagliava, cardinal d'Aragon, whose natural daughter she was, placed her first at Ferrara, and afterwards at Rome, where her fine talents received the highest degree of cultivation. Her works which remain are, "Rime," in one 8vo vol. printed in 1547; Dialogo dell' infinito d'Amore, which appeared in the same year; and Il Meschino o il Guerino, 4to., in 1560. Her beauty and accomplishments were the theme of several poets. She died, near Florence, at the end of the 16th century.

ARAGON, kingdom of. (See Arragon.) ARAL; next to the Caspian sea, the largest inland collection of water in Asia. It was unknown to the ancients. It lies amid the plains of the Turcomans and Kirghises. Its length is estimated at 250 miles, and its greatest breadth at 120. Its water is salt, like all standing collections without an outlet. It receives the Oxus and the Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeons and seals. It is encircled by desert, sandy heaths, and its sandy shores are without harbors. Evaporation, as there is no outlet, seems to draw off its water. It lies very low, and is surrounded by many small lakes and morasses, but no hills. It was once, probably, united with the Caspian sea, the eastern coast of which is separated from the western coast of the A. only by 80 miles of low, sandy and marshy lands. Both ends of these seas, where they approach each other, are very shallow. The A. is full of islands, which, like its banks, are without inhabitants.

ARAM, Eugene, a man of considerable learning, and remarkable for his unhappy fate, was born in Yorkshire, 1704. His education consisted in learning to read; but, being of a studious disposition, he made great progress in mathematical studies and polite literature, by his own unaided exertions. He acquired the Latin and Greek languages, reading all of the Roman and most of the Greek classics,

and also became acquainted with the Oriental and Celtic tongues. The most extraordinary event of his life was the murder of Daniel Clark, a shoemaker, with whom he had been before concerned in some fraudulent practices. The murder was concealed 14 years, and was then accidentally discovered. His wife, from whom he was separated, was the principal witness against him; and, after an able defence, which he read to the court, he was found guilty. After his conviction, he confessed the justice of his sentence, and alleged his suspicion of an unlawful intercourse between Clark and his wife, as his motive for the commission of the murder. He attempted to end his life, while in prison, by bleeding, but was revived and executed.

ARANDA (don Pedro Pablo, Abarca de Bolea) count of; born 1719, of a distinguished family in Arragon. He devoted himself to military pursuits; but, as he discovered a remarkably penetrating spirit, Charles III appointed him his minister at the court of Augustus III king of Poland, an office which he held 7 years. After his return, he became governorgeneral of Valencia. In 1765, the king recalled him, in consequence of an insurrection that broke out in Madrid, and appointed him president of the council of Castile. A. not only restored order, but also effected the expulsion of the Jesuits from the kingdom. The influence of Rome and the priests, however, succeeded in inducing the king to send him on an embassy to France. In Paris A. lived 9 years; then returned to Madrid, as counsellor of state, and lived in a sort of disgrace, till the queen, not contented with the count Florida Blanca, in 1792, gave his place to A. Some months after, he was succeeded, greatly to the displeasure of the court and nation, by don Manuel Godoy. (q. v.) A. continued president of the council of state till he declared his opinion respecting the war against France, when he was banished to Arragon. He died here, A. D. 1794, leaving a young widow, and no children. Madrid was obliged to him, in a great degree, for its security, good order, and the abolition of many abuses.

ARANJUEZ; a village and palace, with splendid gardens, beautiful walks shaded with elms, and a park for hunting, in the Spanish province of Toledo, in a charming shady vale of the Tagus, which receives here the waters of the Xarama; 30 miles from Madrid, to which a Roman road, built by Ferdinand VI., leads; every

mile of which cost 3,000,000 reals, about 147,000 dollars. A. lies in lon. 3° 36′ W., lat. 41° 5 N. The court usually resides here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of people increases from 2600 to about 8000. Charles V marked out this vale as the seat of a royal residence. Philip II founded the palace and garden. His successors, particularly Ferdinand VI, Charles III, and Charles IV, improved and greatly enlarged it. The village is built in the Dutch style, and has broad and straight streets, which cut each other at right angles. The palace has marble stairs, superb mirrors from the manufactory of St. Ildefonso, rich works of art; and both the church and the monastery are adorned with many fine paintings by Spanish and Italian masters. The casa del labrador was designed by Charles IV with great richness and splendor. The palace of A. has been often celebrated by Spanish poets, and is renowned for its gardens, shaded walks and water-works. The gardens are in the form of a star. The chief walk, overshadowed by elms, is 600 or 700 paces long, 12 feet wide, and is bordered by a quick-set hedge. Every 70 or 80 paces, there are resting-places, in the form of a hexagon, cooled with fountains. 12 passages, shaded by elm-trees, unite in forming a large, round area. The royal stud, the herds of mules and buffaloes, the grounds under tillage, the orchards and gardens here, were formerly in a good condition. There is a fountain in the neighborhood, from which a sort of Glauber's salts is obtained. A. has become celebrated, of late years, by the revolution of March 18, 1808. (See Spain.)

ARARAT; a mountain in Armenia, in the pachalic of Erzerum. It stands on an extensive plain, and is connected by low hills with mount Taurus. Its summit, covered with perpetual snow, in the form of a sugar-loaf cut into 2 peaks, presents a formidable appearance with its craggy cliffs and deep precipices. Its highest peak, Mazis, is in the Persian province of Iran, rising to the height of about 9500 feet. It is the greatest elevation in the whole region, whence sacred history affirms that Noah's ark settled upon it.

ARARAT, OF PILOT MOUNTAIN; a mountain of North Carolina, on the N. side of the Yadkin, about 16 miles N. of Salem. It is about a mile in height, and rises in the form of a pyramid, with an area of an acre at top, on which is a stupendous rock 300 feet high. From the summit of this 28

VOL. I.

rock there is an extensive, variegated and delightful prospect. It is seen at the distance of 70 miles, and served as a beacon or pilot to the Indians in their routes.

ARATUS; a Greek poet, born at Soli (Pompeiopolis), in Cilicia. He flourished about 270 B. C., was a favorite of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and a firm friend to Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. We know him only from his poem Phænomena, in which he has given us, in correct and elegant verse, all that was then known of the heavens, with their signs and appearances, although there is reason to believe that he was not himself an astronomer. The esteem which the ancients had for this work, appears from the fact that it was translated by Cicero, Cæsar Germanicus and Avienus. Eratosthenes, with many other great astronomers, wrote commentaries on it. The best editions are by Fell, Oxford, 1672; by Buhle, Leipsic, 1793-1801, 2 vols.; and by Matthiae, Frankfort, 1817—18. It has been translated into German by J. H. Voss, Heidelb., 1824, and published with the Greek text and illustrations.

ARATUS of Sicyon, son of Clinias, was born 273 B. C His father fell in a tumult excited by Abantidas, and A. fled, without knowing it, into the house of the tyrant's sister, who, struck with the circumstance, saved the life of the boy, then 7 years old. Afterwards he was sent to Argos, and the exiles from Sicyon expected in him their future restorer. When he had scarcely reached his 20th year, he delivered Sicyon from the tyrant Nicocles. He would not stain the liberty of his native city with the blood of any citizen, but met with much difficulty in the administration of affairs, as, besides a large party in the city, the king of Macedon also espoused the cause of the deposed Nicocles. Under these circumstances, he deemed it best to join Sicyon to the Achæan league,—the only remaining support of freedom in Greece. By his influence with Ptolemy, king of Egypt, he obtained a sum of money sufficient to settle the various claims of the returned citizens, and, being vested with the supreme constitutional power in Sicyon, he governed with justice and moderation. In due time, being made general of the Achæan league, he recovered the almost inaccessible fortress of Corinth from the king of Macedon, by a plan which is one of the most admired instances of ancient military stratagem. In the end, however, owing to a hostile league against the Achæans between the Etolians and Spartans, A., in opposition

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to his own principles, was obliged to call in the assistance of Antigonus, king of Macedon. This turned the tide of affairs for a while, but, on the death of Antigonus, similar difficulties occurring, his successor, Philip, was in the same manner called to the aid of the Achæans. At first, Philip highly esteemed A., but was gradually estranged from him, and it was thought that he had caused a slow poison to be administered to him, for A., spitting blood in the presence of a friend, exclaimed, "Behold the friendship of kings!" He died in his 57th year, 216 B. C., and was interred with the highest honors. A. was one of the most virtuous and nobleminded men that shed lustre on the declining days of Greece. Polybius speaks in high terms of Commentaries, written by A. on his own actions and the affairs of the Achæans, which, it is much to be regretted, have not reached posterity. The chief materials for his history are to be found in Polybius and Plutarch.

ARAUCANIANS. This is a South American nation, of 400,000 inhabitants, in the southern part of Chile. They occupy a territory containing 64,000 square miles, and stretching from 33° 44' to 39° 50′ of S. lat. They have maintained their independence against the Spaniards to the present time. Bounded on the N. by the river Bio-Bio, on the S. by the river Gallacallay, on the E. by the Andes, and W. by the Pacific ocean, they live under a free, though aristocratical form of government, agreeably to common laws and customs. They dwell in villages, and employ themselves in agriculture and raising cattle. The woollen dress of the men is a shirt and a dark-blue mantle; the women wear a mantle and a long petticoat. The freemen live in huts. Vegetables form their principal food. Polygamy prevails among them, yet the domestic affairs are managed by the women. Their language is allied to the Patagonian. One of the 4 toquis (high hereditary nobility) conducts the public affairs. If he does not, however, enjoy universal respect, the ulmenes, or hereditary nobility of an inferior class, displace him, and substitute one of their own number. Distinguished knowledge and boldness must be shown by the nobility, to excite respect. The general appoints his own lieutenant, who, in his turn, appoints another for himself. Thus every inferior rank is dependent upon the one above it, yet not on the supreme power. In establishing laws and determining in military operations, every A. has a voice. The executive power, however, is not

bound by expression of the popular opinion. Till 1551, the A. fought only on foot, and then, for the first time, they learned the value of cavalry. Now they have many horses, and, on their marches, each rider carries a foot-soldier behind him, so as to advance with more speed. In battles, the cavalry are posted on both wings. The lieutenant-general, vice-toqui, commands one of the wings. In the middle stand the infantry, armed with clubs or spears. They are, likewise, well skilled in the use of fire-arms. In their battles, a portion of the warriors usually remain behind as a corps-de-reserve. The A. advance to an attack with a hideous noise. In the revolutionary struggle of the South American states, the toqui of the A. resolved upon neutrality, which he honorably maintained.-Araucana; an epic poem of Ercilla. (See Ercilla.)

ARBELA, now Erbil; a small place in Eastern Assyria, renowned for a decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela, in its neighborhood, B. C. 331.

ARBITER; a name applied among the Romans, 1. to a judge, whom the prætor had commissioned to decide a controversy pending before him, according to the principles of equity (ex æquo et bono); 2. to a person to whom the contending parties had committed the decision of their dispute, without the interference of a magistrate, by an agreement partly with one another (compromissum), partly with him (receptum); finally, 3. one whom the contending parties had only consulted, with the design of his drawing up terms of settlement, without binding themselves to assent to them. To an arbiter, in the first signification, decisions were committed by the prætor only in affairs of trust and confidence (in negotiis bona fidei), not in cases of strict right (in negotiis stricti juris). In the latter cases, the prætor appointed a judge (judex pedaneus) who was to decide according to a strict rule (formula) which was given to him. In this threefold signification, the arbiters (diairnrai) among the Athenians are comprehended. From the arbiter comes the arbitrator, i. e. one to whom the deciding judge proposes questions depending on scientific or technical knowledge, which affect the decision of the dispute. From the opinions of such a man, the parties may appeal to the opinion of a third (to a reductio ad arbitrium boni viri). But as soon as they have committed the decision to a third by an agreement (compromissum), and the commission (receptum) has been

received by him, they must submit to his decision. His sentence (arbitrium, or laudum) can only be assailed when something fraudulent, e. g., bribery, can be proved against him. In the opinion of many learned jurists, however, it may be called in question in case of a great though unintentional violation of justice (propter læsionem enormissimam). Justinian established a distinction between the decision to which the parties subscribe, or which they approve by a silence of 10 days, and that against which they have protested within 10 days. The former is called arbitrium homologatum; the latter, nonhomologatum. The latter, according to him, ought to have no legal force.

ARBITRATION. Parties may submit a dispute to arbitration either orally or in writing, and, in either case, the award, when properly made, will be binding on the parties. The submission is in the nature of a commission by both parties to the arbitrators to determine the subject in dispute. If either revokes this authority before the award is made, the award will not be binding upon the party so revoking. But if the submission were by bond or covenant, or in writing, and, in some cases, if it were merely oral, the other party will be entitled to damages against the party so revoking, for the breach of his agreement to submit the matter in dispute to arbitration. General agreements to submit disputes that may arise, such as those contained in policies of insurance, are not binding by the laws of the U. States nor by those of England. Similar agreements are, however, binding in Germany, and some other parts of the continent, where articles of copartnership frequently contain a clause to submit disputes between the partners to arbitration; and wills often contain a provision that disputes among the legatees and devisees shall be so settled. In submitting disputes under these stipulations, the parties sometimes take an oath to comply with the award, or they agree upon a penalty for not complying. Each is binding. One reason for not giving effect to such general agreements, in England and the U. States, is, that it substitutes other tribunals in the place of those established by the laws of the country, which may be done in case of a dispute that has actually arisen, but not by a general and prospective agreement. The laws of most countries, however, favor the settlement of disputes by arbitration. The parties may agree in court to refer their case to arbitration, and the judges will recognise

the agreement. For the purpose of encouraging arbitrations, the laws of many if not all of the U. States provide the forms and proceedings in relation to theni. The object of these statutes is to provide a way of making a binding submission, procuring a valid award, and securing its ready execution. Crimes cannot be made the subjects of adjustment and composition by arbitration, for the public is here one party; but the personal injuries and pecuniary damage resulting from crimes or breaches of the peace may be made subjects of reference. As to the persons who may agree upon a submission, any one may do so who is capable of making a disposition of his property, or a release of his right; but one under a natural or civil incapacity cannot, as a married woman or minor. The arbitrators chosen by the parties are often authorized to choose an umpire, in case they disagree; but in some of the general stipulations for reference in Germany, the umpire is agreed on beforehand by the parties. As an arbitrator is a judge who receives a commission from the contending parties, it must be left to them to decide on his qualifications, and the laws do not generally make any specific provisions on this subject. If, however, it appears that the arbitrator was interested, and his interest was unknown to one of the parties, or that he was bribed, or that any other strong objection lay against his acting as arbitrator, exception may be made to the award on that account. The provisions of various statutes for carrying awards into execution, and the exceptions that may be made to them on the ground of interest, circumvention, mistake or informality, are too numerous to be stated particularly.

ARBUTHNOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, was born in Scotland soon after the restoration, but in what year is uncertain. He received the degree of doctor of physic at the university of Aberdeen, and engaged in the business of teaching mathematics in London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his skill in the practice of his profession. In 1704, he was chosen fellow of the royal society, and soon after appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician in ordinary, to queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift and Pope, and this brilliant triumvirate formed the plan of a satire on the abuses of human learning. But the completion of this design was interrupted by the death of the queen,

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