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a decided influence on the whole character of Germany, political and literary; because it is evident, that, had the Romans remained in quiet possession of the country, they would have given a tone to all its institutions and its language, as was the case with all the other countries of Europe conquered by them. The reason, therefore, why the language of the Germans remained unmixed and uninfluenced by Latin, and why their political institutions retained so much of their ancient character, is to be found in the victory of A. To the same cause must be ascribed, however, their tardy developement in several respects. It is not to be doubted, that other nations have derived great benefit from the introduction among them of the Roman civilization, as far as respects the order, tranquillity and refinement of social life; but all advantages could not be had at once; and had not A. crushed the Roman power in Germany, an idiom similar to the French and Spanish would be spoken there, where now a language and literature exist of a peculiar and original character. Some influence, however, the Romans did undoubtedly exercise on the dialect of Germany, and many Latin words were introduced into it, yet with such alteration, that they can with difficulty be recognised.

ARMINIUS, OF HERMANN, James, founder of the sect of Arminians or Remonstrants, was born at Oudewater, in Holland, 1560. He studied at Utrecht and in the university of Leyden. Here he obtained so much reputation, that the magistrates of Amsterdam sent him, at the public expense, to finish his studies at Geneva, where his chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza. Adopting, in philosophy, the new doctrines of Peter Ramus, he privately taught them; which innovation gave so much offence, that he was obliged to quit Geneva. Anxious to attend the celebrated lectures at Padua, he next visited Italy. Distinguished by his zeal for the reformed religion, and talents as a preacher, he was chosen to undertake the refutation of a work written against Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be converted by the work which he had undertaken to refute. He honestly avowed his change of opinion, and, renouncing the Calvinistic doctrine concerning the decrees of God and divine grace, maintained that the merits of Christ extended to all mankind, and that the grace necessary to salvation is attainable by every one. Elect

ed professor of divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, which rapidly spread both among the clergy and laity. The adherents to the Calvinistic system, however, caused him much vexation. He was several times summoned to the Hague, to give an account of his doctrines; and his colleague, Gomarus was among the most violent of his enemies. These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length_impaired his health, and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died in 1609. A. was candid, amiable, sincere, and possessed of great integrity. He was a friend to universal toleration, maintaining that Christians are accountable to God alone for their religious sentiments. His followers included some of the first men in Holland, as Barneveldt, Hoogerbeets and Grotius. The Arminians still remain a distinct sect in Holland, and, from the time of Laud, have been the predominant party in the church of England. Editions of the whole of the writings of this divine were published in one volume, 4to., Leyden, 1629; Frankfort, 1631-1634; and often afterwards. The principal piece in this collection is entitled Dissertationes de Diversis Christiana Religionis Capitibus. (See Arminians.)

ARMOR, COAT OF, in England, signifies the escutcheon of any person or family, with its several charges, and other furniture; as, mantling, crest, supporters, motto, &c. Thus the phrase a gentleman of coat-armor means one who bears arms.

ARMORICA; the ancient name of the whole northern and western coast of Gaul, from the Pyrenees to the Rhine; under which name it was known even in Cæsar's time. The word is said to be of Bas-Breton origin, and to signify maritime.

ARMS. Man has not, like many animals, received from nature any member intended particularly as a weapon. He is obliged to use artificial means to increase his strength, when he attacks, as well as to screen his body, which nature has left unprotected. Arms were, therefore, an early invention; perhaps, in the first instance, as a means of defence against animals. They were soon used, however, for the purpose of conflict between man and man.-The first and most natural of all arms are the club and the sling. Every one naturally uses missiles as means of offence, and the sling adds force to the cast. In the history of the arms of all nations, we find, invariably, that man, beginning with the means of

injury in the close struggle, endeavors continually to invent weapons which shall take effect from greater and greater distances. In consequence of the progress made in this way, dexterity always takes, at last, the place of courage. Nature has given to man only one weapon, in a limited sense of the word,-the arm, used in boxing,-and this can be made truly a weapon only by the dexterity acquired by long training. The art of boxing, moreover, is of use only against men. Within its sphere, indeed, it is very effectual. As soon as men learned the use of the metals, they worked them into pikes, spears, lances, and soon afterwards into swords and armor. Of this last, part only was at first made of metal, but the proportion went on increasing, till at last a complete suit of iron came into use. The first improvement on the sling and the bow was the cross-bow. Still later came the large engines employed by the ancients, and called catapulta, balista, &c. These would produce effect at the distance of 1000 feet. But the discovery of gunpowder changed the character of arms. Objects 6000 paces distant could now be reached, and obstacles overthrown with ease, which formerly cost the labor of years. By the invention of steam-guns, still more may be accomplished in future. The inventor, Mr. Perkins, an American of great mechanical talent, has not, however, yet been able so far to perfect the machine, as to qualify it to take the place of fire-arms.-Arms may be divided into offensive and defensive; the first kind, again, into, 1, arms for cutting, e. g., the sabre; 2, for thrusting, e. g., the straight sword, the small sword, the bayonet, pike, lance, &c.; 3, arms for throwing, e. g., the mortar, howitzer, &c.; 4, arms for shooting, e. g., pistols, carabines, rifles, guns, cannons. It must be observed, that arms for thrusting are much more injurious, and therefore better, than those for cutting; but they require infinitely more skill, and cannot, therefore, be used so much in armies as they otherwise would be. Man is protected by nature much more against a downward blow, by the strong bones of the skull and the shoulders, than against a thrust, to which the more vulnerable parts of the belly and the breast are exposed. So great is the difference in this respect, that a downward blow with the fist hardly ever injures seriously, while the thrust of a boxer is highly dangerous. -II. Defensive arms include all those which are properly so called, cuirasses,

helmets, &c., and also the parts of fortifications which are intended particularly to protect the body. The most important arms are treated of under the proper heads.-Some writers make a distinction between armed men (infantry and cavalry), and manned arms (artillery). The history of war includes also that of arms. French and German military writers apply the word arms to the different species of troops, and speak of the three arms, i. e. cavalry, infantry and artillery. Some writers use bayonet for infantry, as horse is used for cavalry, and say, The army consisted of 12,000 bayonets and 2000 horse.-To readers desirous of becoming acquainted with the armor of the ancients, and that used in the middle ages, we recommend the splendid work, Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armor, &c., with a Glossary for the Names of the Arms of the Middle Ages, by Sam. Rush Meyrick, 3 vols. large 4to., London, 1824; a work interesting to the student of the politics, arts, manners and wars of the ancients and the middle ages. There are, in Europe, many collections of arms used in both these periods (e. g., one of the arms of the ancients, at Naples), which, with the collections of the arms of the Indians, strikingly manifest the progress of civilization. ARMS, COAT OF. (See Heraldry.)

ARMSTRONG, John, born, in 1709, at Castleton, was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and took his medical degree, in 1732, with much reputation. His early attempts in verse contain nothing remarkable. His practice in his profession was never extensive; this he attributed to his neglect of little artifices; others to his indolence and devotion to literature. Soon after his arrival in London, he published the Economy of Love, a disgraceful production, which he endeavored, at a later period, to correct. His Art of preserving Health appeared in 1744, and established his poetical reputation. In 1746, he was appointed physician to an hospital for soldiers, and, in the course of a few years, published his poem on Benevolence, Epistle on Taste, and his prose Sketches by Lancelot Temple, none of which added to his reputation. In 1760, he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany. This appointment was obtained for him by Wilkes, with whom he was then on friendly terms; but their friendship did not stand the tug of political warfare.— After his return to London, he published a collection of his Miscellanies, containing the Universal Almanac, a new prose

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piece, and the Forced Marriage, a tragedy, which had been refused by Garrick. This collection contains nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France and Italy, and published an account of his tour, under the name of Lancelot Temple. His last production was a volume of Professional Essays. He died in 1779, of an accidental hurt.-The conversation of A. is said to have been rich and entertaining, though he is painted, in the Castle of Indolence (to which he contributed the stanzas describing the diseases produced by sloth), as

One shyer still, who quite detested talk. The Art of Preserving Health is a successful attempt to incorporate science with poetry. By giving it a moral as well as a medical interest, A. raised the dignity of the poem. It is distinguished by judicious thoughts, correct expression and lucid management, rather than by originality of genius, harmony of versification, or poetic ardor of thought.

ARMY. In the history of armies we must distinguish those of 3 different periods;-1, the ancient armies, which arrived at their perfection under the Romans; 2, those of the middle ages, the offspring of the feudal system, ill-organized bodies, created only for a short time, and undoubtedly the worst which history makes known to us; 3, such as have existed since the invention of gunpowder and the establishment of standing armies. (See the succeeding article.) By the invention of gunpowder, the whole character of armies has been changed, from the organization and equipment of the whole mass to the very point d'honneur of the individual. As long as personal courage, strength and dexterity decided the fate of a battle, war had great charms for nobleminded characters. At this period, too, science had not become incorporated with the very life-blood of society; and the want of intellectual occupation contributed its share in making war the favorite occupation of the higher classes. They fought on horseback, every one at his own expense. None but the poorer class, the vassals, fought on foot. Under such circumstances, the art of war could never attain a high degree of perfection, nor could the organization of an army be very complete. It was not till the wars between Charles V and Francis I of France, that the great importance of regular infantry was seen, and the Swiss, then the best foot-soldiers in Europe, often determined the fate of the battle.

By the introduction of fire-arms, particularly of artillery, courage and bodily strength lost their exclusive importance, and the advantages of regular tactics began to be felt, by which generals were enabled to direct the movements of armies with greater exactness. Now that war was reduced to a system, it lost much of its charms in the eyes of an idle and ambitious nobility. The estimation of infantry continually increased; volunteers became more rare. It became necessary to take mercenaries from the lowest classes of the people, and, at the same time, the regular tactics introduced required a more thorough training; the individual was lost more and more in the mass, and standing armies were at length established, and rose continually in estimation. Much was done to improve the new system by Henry IV of France, as well as by the republic of the Netherlands, in their struggle for liberty against Spain. The number of troops organized in this way still remained, however, very small, compared with the others. Henry IV, prince Maurice of Nassau, and Alexander, duke of Parma, did much for the improvement of tactics, and of the art of besieging, which made great progress in the war above-mentioned, and contributed, in no small degree, to advance the character of armies. Still more important, in these respects, was the thirty years' war. Armies, as yet, consisted, for the most part, of soldiers raised by the general, to serve only during a particular war, e. g. Wallenstein's troops; but the time of service having much increased, particularly in the wars of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, the character of armies and tactics was much elevated. This king established smaller divisions, introduced lighter weapons, and made many improvements in the artillery, by which quicker and more complicated movements became practicable. Repeated victories proved the advantages of the new system, which even Wallenstein acknowledged. Soon after, under Louis XIV, the whole system of war received another form by means of the minister of war le Tellier, and his son and successor Louvois, the art of tactics being particularly improved by Turenne and other contemporary great generals. Standing armies attained an extent hitherto unexampled. Instead of the 14,000 men maintained by Henry IV, Louis XIV, after the peace of Nimeguen, had on foot an army of 140,000 men. France had set the example, and all the other powers of Europe followed, with

the exception of England and Holland, which, for a long time, opposed a similar augmentation, regarding standing armies as dangerous to freedom. These great masses must necessarily have exerted an important influence upon the art of war. This art was practised upon a continually increasing scale. France was, at the same time, endeavoring, in every way, to secure her boundaries by the erection of new fortifications, and her military engineers were particularly eminent. In the beginning of the 18th century, a new and important epoch commenced in the military system. Not only did Russia, in the time of Peter the Great, maintain a large standing army, well disciplined in the European manner, which afterwards, under the empress Anna, in its internal regulation, also, was made to resemble the armies of the other European states; but Prussia, too, came forward, under Frederic William I, as a respectable military power, and supported an army far exceeding a proper proportion to her population; hence she was induced to set the example of foreign levies, in which originated the inconvenience, that, in the hour of danger, a large part of the army could not be depended on, and, moreover, it was difficult to maintain discipline over this same portion, consisting of the refuse of foreign nations. The native soldiers, too, were corrupted by the contact, and it was found necessary to reduce the army to a machine, in order to make such materials serviceable. This idea was put in execution by Frederic II. The system of standing troops was carried to an extent such as it had never reached, and Prussian tactics became a pattern for all the other states of Europe. The system, however, had fatal imperfections, which would necessarily produce very injurious consequences. The great number of foreign vagabonds enlisted, led to the introduction of a degrading discipline, which made the condition of the soldiers completely miserable. Every prospect of advancement and all ambition were destroyed by the exclusive promotion of officers taken from the ranks of the nobility; and even their promotion was determined by length of service (a natural consequence of the long peace, which had existed since the seven years' war). This system seemed, indeed, to have been carried to its height, when the French revolution broke out with a violence which shook Europe to its foundation. Standing armies had now become bodies having little connexion with the nations by which

they were maintained. They only were armed; the nation had become altogether defenceless. When the army was beaten, the nation was subdued. At the same time, the armies had been so much increased beyond all proportion to the wealth of the states, that they must necessarily remain, in a great measure, useless. They had become mere machines, without any moral incentive. What was the necessary consequence, when, as now happened in France, a people excited to fury commenced a struggle with these antiquated and rusty engines? A new mode of carrying on war, produced by the pressure of circumstances, and by the rapid, bold and energetic efforts of young military geniuses, overturned multitudes of common forms, and carried victory in its train, until the opposing powers had learned to make it their model, and thereby restored the equilibrium. When the French ruler ultimately began to use his army more and more as a machine for the promotion of his ambitious designs, then the other European powers, taught by experience, called the nations themselves to arms, in behalf of freedom; and it was demonstrated anew, that no excellence of discipline, no mechanical perfection of an army, can enable it to withstand, for any length of time, moral energy and excitement, though connected with far inferior discipline. The armies on the continent of Europe are raised, at present, from among the citizens, who are bound to serve for some time, and are then assigned to the class reserved for any sudden emergency. The time of service is various; in France, for instance, 6 years; in Prussia, 3, that is, in time of peace. In England and North America, no citizen is obliged to serve in the standing army, but only in the militia, which is destined merely for the defence of the country. (See Militia and Soldier.) The essay of the French colonel Carrion Nisas, Essai sur l'Histoire générale de l'Art Militaire, &c. (Paris, 1824, 2 vols.), mostly according to the views of Guibert, in his Essai de la Tactique, is neither comprehensive nor complete.The organization of armies is nearly alike throughout the continent of Europe; and France, Prussia, Austria and Russia have paid much attention to the perfection of all classes of troops. The military schools of these countries, for the officers of different rank, as well as for the various kinds of troops, particularly those of France and Prussia, are excellent. Among the Prussian troops, learn

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ing is so universally cultivated, that the army is considered as a great institution for the diffusion of knowledge, because every Prussian serves 3 years without being able to send a substitute, and in each regiment schools for the privates are kept. In respect to these military schools, as well as to internal organization, the armies of the European continent very much surpass the English, in which the practice of selling commissions, the expense of the half-pay system, the non-promotion of privates, the still continued use of tents, the degrading flogging, &c., remind one of a continental army such as it was 50 years ago. In the army of the U. States, commissions are not sold, and the half-pay system has not been adopted. Napoleon increased the size of armies to a degree before unexampled. They are distinguished, according to the purposes for which they are destined, by the names of blockading armies, armies of observation, of reserve, &c. ARMY, STANDING. In modern times, we designate by the name of standing armies bodies of troops which, in time of peace, are kept under arms for the defence of the state, within and without, trained to war, and paid by the government (whence the name soldiers, from soldati, from the Italian soldo, the French sous, for pay). These troops may be composed of persons obliged to bear arms, or not, of natives, or of foreigners. In this sense of the word, we find standing armies first in the monarchies of modern times, when the general introduction of fire-arms had changed the whole art of war, rendering personal courage of less consequence, and supplying its place with dexterity and mechanical skill, which can only be acquired by practice. The first standing armies consisted of mercenaries, assisted, indeed, at first, by the feudal militia, who, however, gradually disappeared, as military service and discipline assumed a more systematic character by means of the standing troops. The expense of mercenaries, which increased with the number of troops, and the security of the state, which could not be committed solely to hired troops, now required that a great proportion of the citizens capable of bearing arms (to be determined by the population, size, geographical and political situation and civilization of the state) should be continually under arms, and supported by the state, in connexion with the professional soldiers. These were, in a peculiar sense, called standing troops.-The introduction of standing armies has been

generally referred to the reign of Charles VII, king of France (1423–1461), who, by means of them, overawed his rebellious vassals, and increased not a little the power of the crown. King Philip Augustus, in consequence of the absence of great numbers of his vassals, in the crusades, had introduced, as early as 1215, the troupes des communes (communiæ communitates parochiarum), composed of the inhabitants of the cities and villages, of which no city furnished more than 400 or 500. These served with the feudal militia, at the expense of the cities to which they belonged, and only at a certain distance from them. The power of the cities was thus increased, and the citizens formed, in war, a separate order, independent of the nobles. It was, in a great measure, owing to this cause, that they came to form a third estate in the administration of government. These troops, however, like the feudal militia, were never summoned, except in case of emergency. Thus the troops of Philip and his successors consisted of feudal militia, of the troupes des communes, and of irregular troops, who were taken into pay (whence soldats, soudoyers), and formed certain companies, as they were called (compagnies). The imperfection of the first class, who often made war on each other, and paid but little regard to the public summons, and the rapine of the latter, led Charles V to meditate a change, and Charles VII resolved to establish a better military system. After long consultation with his nobles, he laid the foundation, in 1445, by selecting 15 captains (capitaines), whom he ordered to choose the bravest men from all the troops, and form them into as many companies. These companies received the name of compagnies d'ordonnance, which was, perhaps, earlier applied only to the royal troops, and were maintained, in war and peace, by the cities and villages. Each of these companies, at first, consisted of 600 horsemen (gens d'armes), exclusive of the volunteers, who soon became numerous, and were distributed in the different cities. Henceforward the feudal militia fell more and more into disrepute, and the vassals assembled their forces only on occasions of great emergency. The feudal militia was not, however, wholly supplanted by mercenaries until the 18th century. In 1448, Charles established a corresponding infantry, called Francs-archers, which, in conjunction with the troops just described, constituted a very respectable army. The military

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