cipal side was adorned with 36 columns, and 24 steps led to the entrance. A. died, soon after her husband, in the monument which she had erected to him, 351 B. C. -Another A., queen of Halicarnassus, accompanied Xerxes on his expedition against Greece, and distinguished herself, in the battle of Salamis (480 B. C.), by her determined boldness. ARTEMISIUM, in ancient geography; a promontory of Euboea, on the northern side of the island, which is famous for the great naval victory, gained in its neighborhood, by the Grecians, over Xerxes. ARTEMON; a heretical teacher, of the 3d century, who denied the divinity of Christ, and declared him to be a mere man, of rare virtue. He lived in the diocese of Rome. His adherents, the Artemonites, seem to have spread, also, to Syria. In the latter half of the 3d century, they were confounded with other opponents to the doctrine of the Trinity. (See Antitrinitarians.) Samuel Crell appeared, in 1726, under the name Artemonius, as an antagonist of the same doctrine. ARTERY. (See Blood-vessel.) ARTHRITIS (from popov, a joint); any distemper that affects the joints, but the gout particularly. (See Gout.)-Arthritis planetica, arthritis vaga, the wandering gout. but to have died, in consequence of his wounds, in 542, on the island of Avalon, where it is pretended that his grave was found, in the reign of Henry II. Hume thinks that the story of Arthur has some foundation in fact. ARTHUR'S SEAT; a high hill in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, said to have been so denominated from a tradition that king Arthur surveyed the country from its summit, and defeated the Saxons in its neighborhood. The highest point is nearly 700 feet from the base. From hence may be seen the German ocean, the whole course of the Forth, the distant Grampians, a large portion of the most populous and best cultivated part of Scotland, including the picturesque city of Edinburgh and its castle. The view is a most beautiful one. ARTICHOKE. The artichoke (cynara scolymus) is a well-known plant, which is cultivated in Europe chiefly for culinary purposes. This plant was cultivated in England as early as the year 1580. The parts that are eaten are the receptacle of the flower, which is called the bottom, and a fleshy substance on the scales of the calyx. The choke consists of the unopened florets and the bristles that separate them from each other. These stand upon the receptacle, and must be cleared away before the bottom can be eaten. Its name undoubtedly arose from a notion, that any one, unlucky enough to get it into his throat, must certainly be choked.-In England, artichokes are generally boiled plain, and eaten with melted butter and pepper, and are considered both wholesome and nutritious. The bottoms are sometimes stewed, boiled in milk, or added to ragouts, French pies and other highly-seasoned dishes. For winter use, they may be slowly dried in an oven, and kept in paper bags, in a dry place. On the continent, artichokes are frequently eaten raw with salt and pepper. ARTHUR, OF ARTUS; prince of the Silures, in the 6th century; an ancient British hero, whose story has been the theme of much romantic fiction. He was, says Geoffrey of Monmouth, who probably followed the chronicle Brut d'Angleterre, the fruit of an adulterous connexion between the princess Igerna, of Cornwall, and Uther, the pendragon or chief commander of the Britons. He was born about 501. In 516, he succeeded his father in the office of general, and performed those heroic deeds against the Saxons, Scots and Picts, which have made him so celebrated. He married By the country people of France, the celebrated Guenever, or Ginevra, be- the flowers of the artichoke are somelonging to the family of the dukes of times used to coagulate milk, for the purCornwall; established the famous order pose of making cheese. The leaves and of the round table; and reigned, surround- stalks contain a bitter juice, which, mixed ed by a splendid court, 12 years, in peace. with an equal portion of white wine, has After this, as the poets relate, he con- been successfully employed in the cure quered Denmark, Norway and France, of dropsy, when other remedies have slew the giants of Spain, and went to failed. The juice, prepared with bismuth, Rome. From thence he is said to have imparts a permanent gold color to wool. hastened home, on account of the faith--The Jerusalem artichoke is a somewhat lessness of his wife, and Modred, his nephew, who carried on an adulterous intercourse, and stirred up his subjects to rebellion; to have subdued the rebels, potato-shaped root, produced by a species of sun-flower (helianthus tuberosus), which grows wild in several parts of South America. This plant bears single stalks, 404 ARTICHOKE-ARTIGAS. which are frequently 8 or 9 feet high, and yellow flowers, much smaller than those of the common species. So extremely productive are these valuable roots, that between 70 and 80 tons weight of them are said to have been obtained, in one season, from a single acre of ground. They succeed in almost every soil; and, when once planted, will continue to flourish in the same place, without requiring much manure, or much attention to their culture. The season in which they are dug up for use, is from about the middle of September till November, when they are in the greatest perfection. After that, they may be preserved in sand, or under cover, for the winter. The roots are generally eaten plainly boiled, but they are sometimes served at table with fricassee-sauce, and in other ways. Their flavor is so nearly like that of the common artichoke, that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other. We are informed that Jerusalem artichokes are a valuable food for hogs and store pigs; and that, if washed, cut, and ground in a mill similar to an apple-mill, they may also be given to horses. ARTICLE OF FAITH is a point of Christian doctrine established by the church. The thirty-nine articles of the church of England were founded, for the most part, upon a body of articles compiled and published in the reign of Edw. VI. They were first passed in the convocation, and confirmed by royal authority in 1562. They were ratified anew in 1571, and again by Charles I. To these the law requires the subscription of all persons ordained to be deacons or priests (13 Eliz. cap. 12); of all clergymen, inducted to any ecclesiastical living (by the same statute), and of licensed lecturers and curates (13 Eliz. cap. 12 and 13, and 14 Ch. II, cap. 4); of the heads of colleges, of chancellors, officials and commissaries, and of schoolmasters. By statute Wm. III, cap. 10, dissenting teachers are to subscribe to all except the 34th, 35th and 36th, and part of the 20th; and, in the case of Anabaptists, except, also, part of the 27th. By the 19th Geo. III, cap. 44, however, dissenting preachers need only profess, in writing, to be Christians and Protestants, and that they believe the Scriptures to be the revealed will of God; and school-masters need neither sign the articles nor such professions. ARTIGAS, J.; a native of Monte Video, and a captain in the royal service at the opening of the revolution on the rio de la Plata. In 1811, he applied to the junta of Buenos Ayres for assistance, in arms and ammunition, to enable him to revolutionize the Banda Oriental, then governed by the Spanish captain-general Elio. The junta sent an auxiliary force, under Rondeau, to aid him; and they gained a signal victory over the royalists, at Las Piedras, in May, 1811, upon which they immediately laid siege to Monte Video. The siege was suspended, by agreement, in November, but afterwards resumed by A., in conjunction with several successive generals from Buenos Ayres, until the garrison capitulated to A. and Alvear, in 1814. Meanwhile, A. had been gradually extending his influence, and assuming rank as chief of the Banda Oriental. Rondeau, in the name of the junta, assembled a convention of the people of this district, for the purpose of choosing deputies to a general congress, and appointing a governor. A. demanded that the electors should receive directions from him; but, the latter proceeding in opposition to his demand, a breach ensued. He declared the convention illegal, and its doings void, and succeeded in persuading nearly all the troops from the Banda Oriental to support him, and to leave the Buenos Ayrean army. In consequence of this, the director, Posadas, declared A. a traitor and an outlaw, and set a price upon his head. This precipitate measure served to widen the breach between A. and the government of Buenos Ayres, and greatly strengthened his power in the Banda Oriental. He claimed that possession of Monte Video should be given to him as political chief; and, having attacked and defeated colonel Soler, who had been appointed governor of the city, he entered it in triumph, and thus held complete control over the whole Banda Oriental. Extending his views farther, he marched, in 1815, against the province of Santa Fe, which declared in his favor. General Viana and colonel Alvarez being sent against him by the existing director, Alvear, with a body of 2000 men, Alvarez united with A., and arrested Viana, being actuated by dislike of the director, Alvear, whose administration was unpopular. Attempts were afterwards made against A. without success, and, at length, in 1816, Pueyredon being placed at the head of the government, conciliatory measures were resorted to, with as little success, to induce him to listen to terms of accommodation, in consequence of a threatened invasion of the Banda Oriental by the Portuguese. treaty was, at that time, concluded by A commissioners appointed on the part of Pueyredon and of A.; but the people of the Banda Oriental refused to ratify it, instigated, it was said, by A. himself. A. continued to maintain his independence. In Dec. 1816, general Lecor invaded the Banda Oriental with a Portuguese army, which A. could not withstand in the open field. Accordingly, he evacuated Monte Video, which was entered by Lecor, Jan. 19th, 1817, and permanently retained by the government of Brazil. Subsequently, the defeat of La Torre, a general of the Banda Oriental, at Arrayo de los Catalanos, increased the difficulties of this territory. A. was compelled to have recourse to a guerilla warfare, wherein he and Rivera, one of his adherents, were greatly distinguished, and inflicted serious losses upon Lecor. At this period, a large portion of the inhabitants desired a reunion with Buenos Ayres, as the only means of successfully resisting the Portuguese. But the intrigues and influence of A. prevented this, and the time for accommodation passed away. A. even sent an abusive letter to the director, and attacked and defeated a detachment of troops under Montes de Oca, and another under Balcarce, which had been ordered to march into the province of Entre Rios, and to secure Santa Fe against the Portuguese. He continued to wage war against his invaders, with undaunted resolution, without any assistance from the government of Buenos Ayres, which was accused, falsely, no doubt, of secretly aiding the Brazilians, in order to destroy him. But, in 1820, the power of A. was completely broken, he being defeated with the loss of nearly all his army; in consequence of which, Ramirez, the chief of Entre Rios, became his enemy, and compelled him to fly into Paraguay. Of his subsequent fate little is known. (See Banda Oriental.) ARTILLERY signifies all sorts of great guns or cannon, mortars, howitzers, petards, &c., together with all the apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which are taken into the field, and used for besieging and defending fortified places. It signifies also the science of artillery or gunnery (q. v.), which, originally, was not separated from military engineering. The class of arms called artillery has always been the subject of scientific calculation, more than any other species, as the Italian word arte, in its name, seems to indicate. The same name is also given to the troops by whom these arms are served, the men being, in fact, subsidiary to the instruments. The other portions of an army are armed men, while the artillery consists of manned arms. The history, &c., of artillery in the different countries, will be given under the head of Gunnery. Artillery, park of, is the place appointed by the general of an army to encamp the train of artillery, with the apparatus, ammunition, &c., as well as the battalion appointed for its service and defence. Strict order and a convenient arrangement for breaking up, &c., are very important in encamping a park of artillery.—Field artillery is distinguished from artillery for defence or besieging.-Flying artillery consists of light pieces, with accommodations for the artillerists, so that the whole can move quickly in battle. In some armies, the mounted artillery, also, is called flying artillery. (See, also, Amusette, Cannon, &c.) ARTOIS; a former province of France, anciently one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands. It was bounded on the S. and W. by Picardy, on the E. by Hainault, and on the N. by Flanders. A. always was accounted very productive. It was 75 miles in length, and 36 in breadth. It is now included in the departments of Pas de Calais, Somme, and Nord. (For comte d'Artois, see Charles X.) ARTOTYRITES (from pros, bread, and rupos, cheese); a sect, in the 2d century, in Galatia, which used bread and cheese in the eucharist, because, they said, the first men offered not only the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks too. They admitted females to the priesthood, and even to the dignity of bishops. ARTS (from the Latin ars); in the most general sense of the word, any acquired skill. As the fine arts, in early times, were not distinctly separated from the merely useful arts (nor even from the sciences), and as there is, in fact, much difficulty in drawing the line, in many cases, one word is used, in most languages, for both, and an epithet is necessary to distinguish them; in some languages, however, e. g., the German, they are distinguished by two very different words. The ancients divided the arts into liberal arts (artes liberales, ingenua, bona) and servile arts (artes serviles). Under the latter were comprehended the mechanical arts, because they were practised only by slaves. The former ones were such as were thought becoming to freemen. The name servile arts was lost as soon as freemen began to practise them, but the name of liberal arts was retained. The following This awkward and illogical division continues in many Catholic schools, where the different classes are arranged according to it. In modern times, we divide arts into fine and useful or mechanical arts, comprising under the former all those, the direct object of which is not utility, as poetry, music, architecture, painting, sculpture, &c. If we speak of the fine arts simply, not in contradistinction to the useful arts, we generally intend only architecture, painting, sculpture and engraving, with their subdivisions. (For the history and description of each of the fine arts, see the respective articles.)-The mechanical arts, as we have said, were practised, among the ancients, by slaves or by women, many things of the first necessity being, of course, manufactured in the house. Refinement, however, in the course of time, made more skill necessary, in some branches of manufacture, than is generally to be expected from women or slaves. Thus we find, in the middle ages, up to the 10th century, besides the slaves or bondsmen, free persons practising the useful arts. From that time, however, it seems that mechanical arts were carried on only by freedmen, or nuns and monks, who worked both for themselves and oth ers. When the cities grew up, and their number and population rapidly increased, one of the immense changes which history shows to have sprung from them, was the elevation of the mechanical arts. It was now esteemed honorable to be a skilful mechanic. In many instances, too, they became blended with the fine arts, and the names of several workmen have been handed down to us, with a reputation akin to that of artists; e. g., Benvenuto Cellini, Peter Fischer. (See Corporation.) ARUNDELIAN MARBLES; a series of ancient sculptured marbles, discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece, at the expense of and for Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James and Charles I, and devoted a large portion of his fortune to the collection of monuments illustrative of the arts, and of the history of Greece and Rome. These marbles, named in honor of their purchaser, arrived in England, in the year 1627, with many statues, busts, sarcophagi, &c. John Selden published some of the inscriptions, which he thought most interesting, under the title of Marmora Arundeliana, 4to., London, 1628. It is supposed that not more than half of the original number escaped destruction in the civil wars: they were then in the garden of the earl, in the Strand, in London. Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, grandson of the collector, presented the remainder to the university of Oxford, where they still remain. The whole collection of inscriptions was published by Humphrey Prideaux, in 1676; by Michael Maltaire, in 1732; by Dr. Chandler, very splendidly, in 1763. These inscriptions are records of treaties, public contracts, thanks of the state to patriotic individuals, &c., and many of a private nature. The most curious and interesting is one usually known by the name of the Parian Chronicle, from having been kept in the island of Paros. It is a chronological account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian history, during a period of 1318 years, from the reign of Cecrops, B. C. 1450, to the archonship of Diognetus, B. C. 264. The authenticity of this chronicle has been called in question, but has been vindicated by many of the most learned men. ARUNS, Tarquinius; the son of Tarquin II, the last king of Rome, who, meeting Brutus in the first battle after the expulsion of the royal family, they mutually killed each other. ARUSINI CAMPI (Arusian fields); plains in Lucania, famous for the last battle between the Romans and Pyrrhus. (q. v.) ARUSPICES, or HARUSPICES; Roman priests and prophets, who foretold events from observing the entrails of sacrificed animals. They observed, too, all the circumstances which accompanied or happened during the sacrifice; e. g., the flame, the mode in which the animal behaved, the smoke. Their origin is to be sought for in Etruria. They were introduced into Rome by Romulus, where they enjoyed their authority till the time of the emperor Constantine, 337 A. D., who prohibited all soothsaying on pain of death. Their number, at this time, was 70; their chief priest was called summus aruspex, or magister publicus. As. The Romans used this word in three different ways, viz., to denote, 1, any unit whatever, considered as divisible; 2, the unit of weight, or the pound (libra); 3, their most ancient coin. In the first use of the word, the pound, foot, ju- = As, 2 Deunx, = 12 ounces. Dextans, 10 Bes, or des,. Dodrans, Septunx, Semis, 9 8 7 66 Sescuncia was 1 ounce. 1 uncia contained 2 semiunciæ, 3 duellæ, 4 sicilici, 6 sextulæ, 3 2 1 ounce. our own cooks, but in very minute quantity, in place of garlic. In many parts of Arabia and Persia, asafoetida is much esteemed as a remedy for various internal diseases, and even as an external application to wounds. With us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several disorders. It has been applied, with success, in the cure of hooping-cough and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great relief. It is imported in masses of various sizes and forms, and of yellow, brown or bluish color, sometimes interspersed with roundish, white pieces. The plant, from the root of which asafœtida is produced, grows in the mountains which surround the small town of Disguum, in Persia; and, at the season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. The upper part of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat above the surface of the ground. The harvest commences when the leaves begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed, by the inhabitants of the place, in 4 different journeys to the mountains. The demand for the article, 24 scrupula (scriptula, or scripula,) in foreign countries, being first ascertain 48 oboli, 144 siliquæ. Scholars are not agreed on the weight of a Roman pound, but it is not far from 327,1873 grammes, French measure. Budæus has written 9 books De Asse et ejus Partibus (Of the As and its Parts). In the most ancient times of Rome, the copper coin, which was called as, actually weighed an as, or a pound, but, in different periods of the republic and the succeeding empire, this coin was of very different values. ASAFŒTIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant (ferula assafœtida), which grows in the mountains of some parts of Persia. The leaves of this plant are nearly 2 feet long, doubly-winged, and have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval, flat, and marked with 3 longitudinal lines. No one, who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful and garlic-like odor of asafoetida, can well forget it. If exposed to the air, but particularly when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding this, it constitutes a favorite seasoning for food with the inhabitants of many parts of the East. The Indian Banians, who never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes, and, before their meals, even rub their mouths with it, in order to stimulate their appetite. It is sometimes used by ed to be sufficient to repay the trouble of collecting it, the persons employed proceed to the mountains in companies of 4 or 5 each. It is stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk of this commodity to the ports in the Persian gulf; and that, when smaller parcels are carried, it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast. ASAPH, St., a native of North Wales, lived under Carentius, king of the Britons, about 590. He wrote the ordinances of his church, and the Life of St. Kentigern, whom he succeeded in the charge of the convent of Llan Elwy. Bayle says he was the first who received unction from the pope. ASBEN; a considerable kingdom in the interior of Africa, between Fezzan and Cashna. The sultan is said, by Hornemann, to rank next to that of Bornou, among the sovereigns of Interior Africa. The inhabitants of A. are Tuaricks, of the tribe Kolluvi. ASBESTUS; a mineral substance, presenting much diversity in its structure and color. It occurs in long, parallel, extremely slender and flexible fibres (amianthus); in finely-interwoven and closelymatted filaments, forming flat pieces (mountain leather); in fibres interlaced so as to form numerous cells resembling cork (mountain cork); in hard, brittle, slightlycurved fibres (mountain wood); and in |