established in several regiments, on the Lancasterian plan, have been abolished since 1821. But there are 53 schools, in each of which 48 children, belonging to the foot-soldiers of the German and Hungarian regiments, are instructed. The Milan school for the Italian regiments is designed for 250 boys. There is an engineering acadeiny, at Vienna, for the education of officers; and in the military academy at Wienerisch-Neustadt, 327 cadets are educated at the expense of the state. The cadet schools at Olmütz and Gratz are still in a flourishing condition; and an institution has been set on foot for the daughters of officers, at Herrnhals, where 46 pupils can be instructed. Von Hietzinger published, at Vienna, in 1822, in 2 vols., the statistics of the Austrian military districts, established in the year 1807. A comparison of this account with the statistics of the military colonies of Russia (q. v.) affords interesting views. A., it is well known, first carried into effect the idea of military colonies, by the grant of lands to 18 Sclavonic regiments, along the confines of Turkey. These regiments have the same origin, the same language and the same religion with the majority of the Russians. The whole country is divided into 214 companydistricts and 8 squadron-districts. Of the male population, in 1820, only 16,834 men were exempt from military duty. The troops consisted of 17 regiments of infantry, one battalion of Tschaikistes, and a regiment of Hussars; together, 45,579 men, exclusive of the civil officers. In case of war, this number can be increased to 70,000, including the reserves, besides the militia, which are kept under pay. The common service in the cordon on the frontiers requires 4200 men. In case of troubles in Turkey, or reports of the plague, 6800 are called out; if the danger is imminent, 10,000 men are brought into action, and often dismissed again within 8 or 14 days. The inhabitants on the frontiers are obliged to serve, on an average, at least 100 days yearly. The revenue of the frontier settlements was estimated, in 1820, at 1,553,000 florins, convention-money (see Money, standard of); but the money expended on them was 2,457,900 such florins; 1,384,800 of which were applied to the support of the troops stationed there. (See Military frontiers.) The economical regulations of the Austrian army are described by Hübler; and an account of the nature of their discipline is given by Bergmayer (Vienna, 1821). The Austrian Military Journal, 42 VOL. I. conducted by captain Schels, is full of information on this subject. The best map of the Austrian empire is that prepared by the topographical cabinet of the quar ter-master-general's staff, drawn under the direction of colonel Fallon. It is in nine sheets, published at Vienna, in 1822. According to this map, the Austrian monarchy embraces, I. The hereditary states of Austria, which form a part of the German confederacy; 76,199 square miles, 9,843,490 inhabitants. They contain, L The arch duchy of Austria; 14,833 square miles, 1,908,200 inhabitants: a. Austria below the Ens, or Lower Austria (7713 square miles, 1,119,900 inhabitants), embracing Vienna, the capital: b. Austria above the Ens, or Upper Austria, including the Innviertel, the Hausruckviertel and the Salzach or Salzburg circle (the duchy of Salzburg, q. v.); 7119 square miles, 788,282 inhabitants. 2. The duchy of Stiria; 8454 square miles, 780,100 inhabitants. 3. The county of Tyrol, raised to a principality, with several districts of Salzburg, and the Vorarlberg dominions; 11,569 square miles, 738,000 inhabitants. 4. The kingdom of Bohemia, with Eger and Asch; 20,172 square miles, 3,380,000 inhabitants. 5. The margraviate of Moravia, with Austrian Silesia; 10,192 square miles, 1,805,500 inhabitants. 6. The duchy of Auschwitz, lying in Galicia, but included in the German confederacy, as an ancient Bohemian fief and Silesian principality; 1843 square miles, 335,190 inhabitants. 7. The kingdom of Illyria; 9132 square miles, 897,000 inhabitants. This kingdom includes, a. the government of Laybach, or the duchies of Carniola and Carinthia: b. the government of Trieste, or the Littorale; 3242 square miles, 370,000 inhabitants.-II. The hereditary states of Hungary; 125,105 square miles, 10,628,500 inhabitants. They contain, a. the kingdom of Hungary, with the provinces of Sclavonia and Croatia; 88,574 square miles, 8,200,000 inhabitants: b. the grand principality of Transylvania (exclusive of the military districts); 18,350 square miles, 1,435,000 inhabitants: c. the Austrian military districts; 1. in Croatia; Banal, Warasdine and Carlstadt, united under one governor, in 1824, together with the Banal military lands, 995 square miles, 96,000 inhabitants; likewise the two generalats, 5022 square miles, 301,200 inhabitants: 2. in Sclavonia; 2945 square miles, 244,000 inhabitants : 3. the Hungarian and Bannatic military lands; 3856 square miles, 205,000 inhabitants : 4. the Transylvanian military frontiers; 5361 sq. miles, 147,300 inhab- In Hungary and Transylvania,... 145 Dalmatia, Tyrol, and the Lom- 21305 navigable rivers, the largest are, the Dan- 210 This statement gives an increase, in 12 years, on the population of 1815, calculated at 27,000,000, of more than 27 per cent.; in fact, nearly 7,000,000. Different authorities agree, up to the year 1821, in a rate of increase, which, if continued to 1828, would make that increase more than 7,000,000. The monarchy num.bers 777 cities, 635 suburbs, 2224 market-towns, and 69,105 villages. The most populous cities are, Vienna, Milan, Venice, Lemberg, Padua, and Debreczyn (nopulation, 41,175.) Of the numerous linen, cotton, paper, tobacco, sugar, wool, silk, leather, bleached wax. The trade has increased since the recovery of Italy. The exports of the country amount to more than 36 million florins, conventionmoney (see Money); and the imports to 44 millions. The principal sea-ports are Trieste, Venice, and Fiume: other places of trade are Vienna, Prague, Pest, Lemberg, Brody and Gratz. The bank of Vienna affords the most important support to the commercial interests of the state: the same advantage is derived from the Austrian national company of commerce, lately erected for the sale of merchandise, and the promotion of trade. The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic. The bishoprics in Germany and Hungary are richly endowed, particularly the archbishoprics of Gran, Colocza, Olműtz, Erlau, &c. The whole number is 14. In Lemberg and in Venice there is an Armenian Catholic archbishop, and in Venice a Catholic patriarch. The Greek church is under the archbishop of Carlovitza. The Lutherans and Calvinists have consistories and superintendents; and in Hungary and Transylvania, their civil rights are nearly equal to those of the Roman Catholics. There are also Mennonites, Mohammedans, &c., in various parts of the empire. The number of Catholics in A. is estimated at 23,978,000; members of the Greek church, 2,814,378; Calvinists, 1,584,716; Lutherans, 1,119,800; Unitarians, 49,000. -Universities are established at Vienna, Prague, Pest, Lemberg, and Pavia. There are lyceums at Lintz, Gratz, Brünn, Grosswardein; a mining academy at Schemnitz; a medical school at Vienna; an academy for painting, sculpture, architecture and engraving at Vienna; a library; a gallery of paintings; collections of medals and other antiquities, which are deserving of notice.-The government is a monarchy; in Hungary and Transylvania, a limited monarchy: in the other territories of the empire, the estates (of which there are four in Tyrol, including the peasantry) are convened to grant the supplies called for to meet the expenses of government. But the system of imposts and customs, existing between the different districts, is an impediment to commerce. The law of primogeniture prevails in regard to the succession to the throne. There are seven knightly orders,—1. that of the golden fleece; 2. of the starry cross, for ladies of princely or ancient noble families; (the following being also orders of merit); 3. the milita ry order of Maria Theresa; 4. the royal order of St. Stephen, in Hungary; 5. the imperial Austrian order of Leopold, which has existed since 1808; 6. the order of the iron crown (renewed in 1816); 7. the order of Elizabeth Theresa, for officers only, who have risen, at least, to the rank of colonels. There are, also, in Austria, a. the ancient imperial Teutonic order, of which an archduke is appointed grandmaster by the emperor; b. the spiritual order of St. John, which has a grand-priorate in Bohemia, and several commanderies in Upper and Lower Austria; c. the order of the cross, with the red star. At the head of the administration, under the direction of the emperor, stands the privy-counsellor for home affairs. There are two departments of government, one for foreign and the other for domestic affairs, both under the direction of a minister. The judicial system is mild and well-regulated. The civil code, coinpleted July 1, 1811, is very good. The courts were much improved as early as 1781. A general penal code was adopted Jan. 1, 1804. These laws are in force only for the German, Galician, and Italian territories, for Dalmatia, and the military districts. The revenue of the state (including the extraordinary income) is estimated at 220 million florins of silver, and the interest of the public debt at 22 millions yearly. By the loan of 1827, the public debt was increased to 680 million florins. This estimate is exclusive of 98,025,413 florins in redemption and anticipation certificates (einlösungs und anticipations scheine), which were in circulation June 30, 1827. The standing army, in time of peace, is composed of 271,400 men, including 39,000 horse, and 17,790 artillery. The supplementary troops, the reserve, and the militia, together, comprise about 479,000 men. The naval force consists of three ships of the line, six frigates, three corvettes, three brigs and four schooners. There are, also, in the empire, 25 fortresses, and 59 fortified towns. On the history of the Austrian monarchy, see the works of Genersich (Vi enna, 8 vols. 1817); Coxe (History of the House of Austria, London, 1807, 3 vols. 4to.); J. B. Schels's History of Austria (Vienna, 1819-27, 9 vols., to the time of Joseph II). In regard to the statistics of this country, the following works are valuable:-Darstellung des Fabrik- und Gewerbwesens in seinem gegenw. Zustande ; vorzügl. in technischer mercantil. und statisch. Bezieh. und mit Berücksicht des Fabrik- und Gewerbwesens im Estr. Kaiser 496 AUSTRIA-AUTOCRATOR. staate, herausgeg von Steph. Edl. von Kees. Vienna, 1824. Die Douanen und Quarantaineverfassung des Estreich. Kaiserstaats, in ihrer gegenw. Gestalt von A. A. Kronegger. Vienna, 1824. Handbuch für Reisende in dem Estreich. Kaiserstaate von R. E. von Jenny: to which Hormayr's Archiv., 1824, is a useful supplement. Gelehrten und Schriftsteller-Lexicon der Estreich. Monarchie von D. Sartori, which begins in 1801, and forms a valuable addition to De Luca's Gelehrtes Estreich. AUTENRIETH, John Henry Ferdinand, chancellor of the university of Tübingen, and professor of medicine in the same institution, was born in the year 1772, and early evinced decided talent in the department of natural science. His imagination was lively, and his memory remarkably tenacious. After he had received his doctorate, he visited North America. During his travels in this part of the world, he was attacked by the yellow fever in a solitary place, at a distance from human assistance, and saved his life by bold and copious bleeding. After his return, he was appointed professor of medicine, particularly of anatomy and clinical medicine, at Tübingen. Here he labored zealously. His lectures were eloquent, and his attention to the sick unremitted. He published, likewise, several periodicals, partly alone, partly in connexion with Reil. The king of Wurtemburg appointed him chancellor of the university of Tübingen. AUTEUIL; a small town of France, at the entrance of the wood of Boulogne, somewhat less than a mile from Paris. Men of literary reputation have often resided there. The country-seat of the poet Boileau is still shown there, where the beaux esprits of France-often banqueted. On a certain time, heated with wine at a supper, the literati complained of the degeneracy of the age, and lamented their misfortune in having been born at such a period. All agreed to plunge into the neighboring Seine, and the flower of the French writers were already on their way to the river, when the thought struck Molière, that such an act, by such men, ought not to be performed in the darkness of night. The companions stopped, found he was in the right, and agreed to drown themselves at day-break, after drinking the remainder of their wine. The ingenious Andrieux brought this anecdote upon the stage in the piece Molière avec ses Amis, ou le Souper à Auteuil. While the physician Gendron was in possession of this house, he was visited by his friend Voltaire, who wrote the following not very poetical inscription for it :-C'est ici le vrai Parnasse des vrais enfans d'Apollon.-Sous le nom de Boileau ces lieux virent Horace; Esculape y paraît sous celui de Gendron. Madame Helvetius, his widow, finally occupied it. Her evening parties here were celebrated. All who were distinguished in the walks of literature or of active life, were always welcome, whether French or foreigners. All were without restraint. Her society was therefore called la société libre des égoistes. In 1798 or 1799, Bonaparte here became acquainted with several men of liberal minds, and often used to walk with the celebrated owner in her garden She soon perceived his soaring ambition, and said to him one day with a smile, Vous ne vous doutez pas combien on peut trouver de bonheur dans trois arpents de terre.—The monuments of several illustrious men are to be seen in the churchyard at A.; among others, that of Nicolaï, president of the chambre des comptes, and the chancellor d'Aguesseau, remarkable as a great civilian and advocate of the rights of men. AUTHENTICS a name applied, in the civil law, to an extract from the Novels (see Corpus Juris), by which a law of the code is either changed or entirely abolished. They were extracted by the first doctors of the law, in the middle ages, from a manuscript copy of the Novels (liber authenticus), put among the altered passages of the code, and have thus remained in the editions of the Corpus Juris. Some laws, moreover, of the emperors Frederic I and II of Germany have been introduced in this way. AUTO DA FÈ. (See Inquisition.) AUTOCHTHONES (from the Greek) signifies men produced from the ground which they inhabit. Several ancient nations assumed this name, to indicate the antiquity of their origin; e. g. the Athenians. AUTOCRATOR (from Greek avròs, himself, and κpáros, power); a name given to the Athenian general, when, in particular cases, unlimited authority over the troops was intrusted to him, and he was not bound to give account of his proceedings. Thus Aristides was an autocrator in the battle of Platea. ПpecßELS AUTOKρáтopes were Athenian ambassadors with full powers, corresponding to our plenipotentiaries. In modern times, the word autocrat is used, in politics, for a ruler with absolute power. Thus the emperor of Russia is styled autocrat of all the Russias. Some writers on morals apply this term to man, to represent his power over his own conduct. AUTODIDACTI (Greek avròs, himself, and diddow, I teach); those who have obtained knowledge and skill in any art or science, without the personal instruction of others. AUTOGRAPHS (Gr.); manuscripts written by the author himself, in distinction from copies. They are more highly esteemed than the latter, not only as interesting relics, but also as more correct and free from faults than those copied by another hand. Some collections of autographs of famous men are very interesting. AUTOMATON (from Gr. avróparos, spontaneous); a self-moving machine, without life. Machines of this kind are kept in motion by means of springs or weights. When they represent human figures, they are called androides; but clocks, watches, &c. are also automata. We find very early mention of them. Homer describes Vulcan fabricating tripods, which moved on living wheels, instinct with spirit. The celebrated statue of Memnon, which emitted musical sounds at sunrise, the walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas (q. v.), are instances of ancient skill in this respect. In modern times, friar Bacon (q. v.) constructed a brazen head which spoke. Regiomontanus (q. v.) made a flying eagle, and an iron fly, which, after making the tour of the room, returned to its master. Albertus Magnus (q. v.), in the 13th century, spent thirty years in constructing a human figure, which advanced to the door when any one knocked, opened it, and saluted the visitor. In the water-clock presented to Charlemagne by Haroun al Raschid, twelve doors in the dial opened respectively at the hour which they represented: they continued open till noon, when 12 knights issued out on horseback, paraded round the dial, and then, returning, shut themselves in again. Camus constructed an ingenious toy for Louis XIV, consisting of a carriage drawn by two horses, containing a little figure of a lady, with a coachman and attendants. The coachman smacked his whip; the horses moved their legs naturally; and, when the carriage arrived opposite to the king's seat, it stopped; the page stepped down, and opened the door; the lady alighted, and presented a petition to Louis. The flute-player, the tambour-player, and the wonderful duck of Vaucanson (q. v.), are celebrated for the astonishing ingenuity displayed in their construction. The two brothers Droz (q. v.) have executed some admirable works of the kind. One of them is a child, sitting at a desk, who dips his pen into the ink, shakes it, and writes, in French, whatever is dictated to him. This must be done, of course, by human intervention. A vase, presented to Bonaparte, when first consul, on being touched, exhibited a palm-tree, under which a shepherdess was spinning. The chess-player of von Kempelen (q. v.) has been supposed to be moved by a man concealed in the chest. The speaking machine of the same artist, the fluteplayer of Siegmeier, the trumpeters of Maelzel and Kaufmann, deserve mention among the later automata. One of the most ingenious automatical mechanists of the present day is the Swiss Maillardet. He constructed a female figure, which performs 18 tunes on the pianoforte; the bosom heaves, the eyes move, and the natural motions of the fingers are performed. The action of this machine continues an hour. Besides this figure, there is a magician, who answers any question taken from 20 medallions. The medallion selected is placed in a drawer, the magical books are gravely consulted, and the magician then strikes with his wand against a door, which opens, and displays an appropriate answer. His other automata are, a boy, which draws and writes; a little figure, a few inches in height, which dances to music produced in a glass case, in which it is enclosed; a humming-bird, which issues from a box, sings, and returns to the box again; a steel spider; a hissing serpent, &c. An engine has been made by Mr. Babbage capable of computing any table by the method of differences. The greater the number of differences, the more it will outstrip the most rapid calculator. AUTOPSY (from Greek, aurds, himself, and is, sight); observation which one makes himself, in contradistinction from knowledge which we get from the accounts of others. AUTUMN; that one of the seasons, which, in the northern temperate zone, begins when the sun, in its apparent descent to the southern hemisphere, touches the equator. The end of autumn is at the time of the sun's greatest south declination, or when he enters Capricorn. According to our computation of time, the beginning of autumn is Sept. 23, when, for the second time in the year, the days and nights are equal; and the end is Dec. 21, at the time of the shortest day. The autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of our spring. From this astronomical autumn the physical or |