legislature till 1774, when he was sent to the first congress of the old confederation. He was subsequently chosen secretary of Massachusetts in 1775, which office was performed by deputy during his absence. He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776, which he labored most indefatigably and unhesitatingly to bring forward. He was an active member of the convention that formed the constitution of Massachusetts; and, after it went into effect, he was placed in the senate of the state, and for several years presided over that body. In 1789, he was elected lieutenant-governor, and held that office till 1794, when, after the death of Hancock, he was chosen governor, and was annually re-elected till 1797. He then retired from public life, and died at his house in Winter street, Boston, October 2, 1803, in the 82d year of his age. He was one of that class who saw very early, that, "after all, we must fight;" and, having come to that conclusion, there was no citizen more prepared for the extremity, or who would have been more reluctant to enter into any kind of compromise. After he had received warning at Lexington, in the night of the 18th of April, of the intended British expedition, as he proceeded to make his escape through the fields with some friends, soon after the dawn of day, he exclaimed, "This is a fine day!" 66 Very pleasant, indeed," answered one of his companions, supposing he alluded to the beauty of the sky and atmosphere. “I mean," he replied, "this day is a glorious day for America!" His situation at that moment was full of peril and uncertainty, but, throughout the contest, no damage to himself or to his country ever discouraged or depressed him.The very faults of his character tended, in some degree, to render his services more useful, by concentrating his exertions, and preventing their being weakened by indulgence or liberality towards different opinions. There was some tinge of bigotry and narrowness both in his religion and politics. He was a strict Calvinist; and, probably, no individual of his day had so much of the feelings of the ancient Puritans as he possessed. In politics, he was so jealous of delegated power, that he would not have given our constitutions inherent force enough for their own preservation. He attached an exclusive value to the habits and principles in which he had been educated, and wished to adjust wide concerns too closely after a particular model. One of his colleagues, who knew him well, and estimated him

highly, described him, with good-natured exaggeration, in the following manner: "Samuel Adams would have the state of Massachusetts govern the Union, the town of Boston govern Massachusetts, and that he should govern the town of Boston, and then the whole would not be intentionally ill-governed."—It was a sad error of judgment that caused him to undervalue, for a period at least, the services of Washington during the revolutionary war, and to think that his popularity, when president, might be dangerous. Still, these unfounded prejudices were honestly entertained, and sprang naturally from his disposition and doctrines. During the war, he was impatient for some more decisive action than it was in the power of the commander-in-chief, for a long time, to bring about; and when the new constitution went into operation, its leaning towards aristocracy, which was the absurd imputation of its enemies, and which his antifederal bias led him more readily to believe, derived all its plausibility from the just, generous and universal confidence that was reposed in the chief magistrate. These things influenced his conduct in old age, when he was governor of Massachusetts, and while the extreme heat of political feelings would have made it impossible for a much less positive character to administer any public concerns, without one of the parties of that day being dissatisfied.-But all these circumstances are to be disregarded, in making an estimate of his services. He, in fact, was born for the revolutionary epoch; he was trained and nurtured in it, and all his principles and views were deeply imbued with the dislikes and partialities which were created during that long struggle. He belonged to the revolution; all the power and peculiarity of his character were developed in that career; and his share in public life, under a subsequent state of things, must be considered as subordinate and unimportant.-His private habits were simple, frugal and unostentatious. Notwithstanding the austerity of his character, his aspect was mild, dignified and gentlemanly. He was entirely superior to pecuniary considerations, and, after having been so many years in the public service, must have been buried at the public expense, if the afflicting death of an only son had not remedied this honorable poverty.

ADAM'S APPLE is a kind of orange, the citrus aurantium of Linnæus.-The same name is also given to the protuberance in the fore part of the throat, occasioned by

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the projection of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. This name originated from the tradition, that a piece of the forbidden fruit, which Adam ate, stuck in his throat, and occasioned the swelling.

ADAM'S PEAK; the highest mountain in the island of Ceylon, called by the inhabitants Ham-al-el. It lies under 6° 49′ N. lat., 80° 43′ E. lon., and can be seen, in clear weather, from the sea at a distance of 150 miles. It has neither been measured, nor geologically examined. The chief river of the island, Mahavillagonga, the mouth of which forms, at Trincomalee, the best harbor in all India, has its source in this mountain. It is considered sacred by the followers of Buddha, many of whom make pilgrimages to it. The betel-leaf is exchanged by them as a sign of peace, for the purpose of strengthening the bands of kindred, confirming friendships and reconciling enmities. A priest then blesses them on the summit, and enjoins them to live virtuously at home. According to Davy, the road which leads to the summit is, with all its windings, 8 miles long, and in some places very steep. Upon the top, the priests show a footstep which Buddha is said to have made. The place is surrounded by venerable old trees, particularly rhododendra.

ADAMSON, Patrick, a native of Perth, and a distinguished Latin poet, was born in 1536. After having studied at St. Andrews, he visited Paris, Padua and other places distinguished for their universities, and at Geneva imbibed the Calvinistic doctrines from the celebrated Beza. On his return, he escaped from the massacre of St. Bartholomew by flight, and lay concealed a long time at Bourges, where he composed his paraphrase of Job, and some other works. On his return to Scotland, he was appointed minister of Paisley, and afterwards, by the favor and interest of the regent Morton, was raised to the archbishopric of St. Andrews. In this elevated situation, he was surrounded with dangers and difficulties, and the virulence of the Presbyterians was successfully directed against him, as the firmest pillar of episcopacy. James VI, however, patronised him, and sent him as his ambassador to England, where his eloquence and address gained him admirers, and raised such a tide of popularity in favor of the young king, his master, that the jealousy of Elizabeth forbade him again to ascend the pulpit while at her court. His principal objects in England were to gain friends for his master among the nobles, and to support the cause of episco

pacy in Scotland. In 1584, he was recalled, and so violent was the irritation of the Presbyterians against him, that, at a provincial synod, he was accused and excommunicated; and neither appeals to the king and to the states, nor protestations of innocence, would have saved him from this disgraceful sentence, if he had not yielded to the storm, and implored pardon in the most abject terms. His life continued a scene of persecution; even the monarch grew deaf to his petitions, and alienated the revenues of his see in favor of the duke of Lenox, so that A., in addition to the indignities offered to his office, had to endure the pangs of indigence, in the midst of a forlorn and starving family. He died 1591. A 4to. volume of his works has been published, containing translations of some of the books of the Bible in Latin verse, frequently composed to alleviate his griefs and disarm the terrors of persecution. He also wrote a history of his own times.

ADANSON, Michel, a botanist, born at Aix, 1727, made natural history his favorite study, and chose Réaumur and Bernard de Jussieu for his guides. His em-ulation was roused by the brilliant success of the system of Linnæus. He abandoned the study of divinity, and, in the prosecution of his favorite pursuits, made several journeys to regions never yet visited by man. In 1748, at the age of 21, he went to the river Senegal, in the belief that the unhealthiness of the climate would, for a long time, prevent naturalists from visiting this country. He collected, with all the zeal of an enthusiast, invaluable treasures in the three kingdoms of nature; and, perceiving the defects in the established classification of plants, endeavored to substitute another more comprehensive. He also prepared exact maps of the countries through which he travelled, and compiled dictionaries of the languages of the different tribes, with whose manners and customs he had become acquainted. After a residence of 5 years in an unhealthy climate, he returned to his country, in the possession of very valuable collections, and published, in 1757, Histoire Naturelle du Sénégal. Some masterly essays of his were printed in the memoirs of the French academy, and procured him the honor of being chosen a member of the institute. These essays were only preludes to his learned and comprehensive botanical work, Familles des Plantes, 2 vols., 1763. The work, however, did not effect the object for which it was written,-the establishment of a new system of botany, in

opposition to that of Linnæus. He was preparing a new edition, with numerous alterations and important additions, when he formed the plan of publishing a complete encyclopædia. In hopes of receiving support from Louis XV, he began to collect materials, which, in a short time, increased to an immense mass; and in 1775, he laid before the academy a prospectus of a work, on so large a scale as to excite general astonishment. It was carefully examined, but the result did not answer the expectations of the author. A.'s plan was good, but he was wrong in insisting upon the immediate publication of the whole. This obstinacy is the reason that the work has never been printed. He continued, however, to increase his materials with unwearied diligence. Some valuable essays, printed in the memoirs of the academy, are all of his writings that subsequently came before the public. The idea of executing his great work continually occupied his mind, and he employed all his means for this purpose. But the revolution reduced him to extreme poverty, and when the national institute chose him one of its members, he declined the invitation because he had no shoes. A pension was then conferred upon him, which he enjoyed till his death, in 1806, continually employed in preparing his great work. The number of his printed books is small, in comparison with the mass of manuscripts which he has left. A good selection of these would be very acceptable to the literary public.

ADDINGTON, Henry, lord viscount Sidmouth, son of a physician, who united with the study of his profession a love for politics. Henry A., born in 1756, was educated with Pitt, the son of lord Chatham. The splendid career of his friend opened to him also the path to distinction. As a member of parliament, he supported Pitt against Fox with all his power. In 1789, A. was chosen speaker of the house of commons, and continued in this honorable office, even after the convocation of a new parliament. Ever faithful to the party of Pitt, he only once disagreed in opinion with his friend on the motion of Wilberforce, in 1792, to abolish the African slave trade, and voted for its gradual abolition. Through his influence, the time of prohibition was deferred till 1800. But this temporary difference of opinion neither destroyed their intimacy, nor prevented their agreement in the same general system of politics. Feb. 5, 1801, Pitt resigned the office of chancellor of the exchequer in favor of A. While in this

office, A. made several reports on the state of the finances in England, on the necessity of new loans, &c. He was an advocate of peace, after the treaty of Amiens, which was considered to have been brought about by him. But as soon as the treaty was violated, he proposed measures of hostility, and showed himself one of the warmest advocates of war. His enemies attempted to injure him, during the period of the king's illness, in the beginning of 1804; but the sudden recovery of the king frustrated their designs. New attacks, however, compelled him to leave his station, to which Pitt was again raised, May 10. The king then conferred upon him the title of lord viscount Sidmouth, and honored him with his confidence. In January, 1806, he became again connected with the government, as keeper of the great seal, but soon resigned this office. In 1812, when lord Liverpool was appointed first lord of the treasury, in the place of Mr. Perceval, who had been murdered, lord Sidmouth again took his seat in the cabinet, as secretary of state for the home department, but retired from office in 1822. Mr. Peel was his successor.

ADDISON, Joseph, a poet and miscellaneous writer, was born at Milston, Wiltshire, where his father was rector, in 1672, and died 1719. He received the first part of his education in his native place: at the age of 11, his father having been appointed dean of Litchfield, he became a pupil of Mr. Shaw. But we have no account of his early character, except that he distinguished himself in a barring out. At the age of 15, he was entered at Queen's college, Oxford, where his Latin poem on the inauguration of William and Mary obtained his election into Magdalen college, on the founder's benefaction. His other Latin poems may be found with this in the Musa Anglicana, collected by himself. In 1693, having taken the degree of master of arts, he published his first attempt in English, some verses inscribed to Dryden, with a translation of part of the fourth Georgic of Virgil, and other pieces in prose and verse. In 1695, he wrote a poem "To King William," and obtained the patronage of lord Somers, keeper of the great seal, by addressing it to him. Having declined entrance into holy orders, he obtained a pension of £300 by the influence of Somers, and Montague, chancellor of the exchequer, to enable him to travel; and in 1701, he wrote the Poetical Epistle

more awkward man;" but he was easy, fluent and familiar, in the company of his friends. He studied all the morning, dined at a tavern, and spent the evening at Button's, a coffee-house frequented by the wits of the time. As a poet, he is distinguished for taste and elegance, but is destitute of high poetic genius. His prose is remarkable for its purity, perspicuity and simplicity, and for the higher graces of harmony and richness of metaphor. It is the sentence of the great judge of English literature, that "he who would write English with correctness and elegance must give his days and nights to the study of Addison." His chief works are the tragedy of Cato, his papers in the Tattler, the Spectator and the Guardian, and the Evidences of the Christian Religion.

ADDRESS. In modern times, importance has been given to the manifestation of public opinion to the sovereign, in the form of addresses; and governments, in difficult emergencies, have in turn addressed the people. A communication from the rulers to the citizens is called a proclamation. In France only, at the time when the sovereignty of the people was acknowledged, the higher authorities sent addresses to the people. An address is essentially different from a petition, since it contains only an expression of thanks, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, communicates information, justifies measures, &c. This practice owes its origin to the British parliament, which is accustomed to answer the king's speeches, delivered at the commencement and close of each session, by a public acknowledgment of the obligations of the nation. The same custom is adopted by the congress of the United States. (See Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice.) The constitutions of the several German states grant this right in a very limited sense. In Wurtemberg, it has been declared unconstitutional, in reference to the army, and in Bavaria, the estates have only the right of transmitting petitions to the king, and of complaining against the ministers of state. The right of the citizens, in associations or otherwise, to present addresses, is connected with the right of complaining, convoking assemblies and signing in a body. It is obvious, that addresses of thanks and satisfaction, like those with which Napoleon was so much pleased, are of importance only in case the expression of public opinion is free.

scholar, distinguished for his exertions to improve the literature and language of his country, was born August 8, 1732, at Spantekow, in Pomerania, where his father was a clergyman. He received his first instruction partly at Anklam, partly at Klosterbergen, near Magdeburg, and finished his education at Halle. In 1759, he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy at Erfurt; but, two years after, ecclesiastical disputes caused him to re move to Leipsic, where he applied him self, with indefatigable activity, to the ex tensive works by which he has been so useful to the German language and literature, particularly his Grammatisch-krit. Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart. Leipsic, 1774–86, 4 vols. and 1st half of the 5th. In 1787, he received, from the then elector of Saxony, the place of first librarian of the public library in Dresden. This office he held till his death, Sept. 10, 1806. A. has alone performed for the German language what whole academies have done for others. His grammatical, critical dictionary surpasses the English lexicon of Johnson in the accuracy and order of the definitions, and more especially in the department of etymology, but is inferior to it in the selection of classic authorities, because A.'s predilection for the Upper Saxon, or Misnian authors, induced him to neglect those writers whose country or style he disliked, and his taste was so limited, that he would not allow of any deviation from the established forms and settled laws of style. His methodical mind was struck with terror at the irregularities and the flood of new words with which he thought the German language menaced, and could not appreciate its admirable flexibility and copiousness, in which it is equalled by the Grecian alone.

Voss and Campe

ADELM. (See Adhelm).