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dates, in which last work he designed to store up the fruits of all his investigations, but finished only the first volume; for the three others, we are indebted to the 'lexicographer Vater, of Halle, who employed for this purpose, partly the papers of the deceased, partly the materials collected by A. and W. von Humboldt, and partly the results of his own inquiries. A. was a man of blameless morals and amiable temper. He was never married. He daily devoted 14 hours to labor.

ADELUNG, Frederic von, since 1825, president of the Asiatic academy at St. Petersburg, a nephew of the lexicographer, was born at Stettin, 1768, and has distinguished himself as a historian and linguist. Having previously made himself intimate at Rome with the treasures of the Vatican library, and published some interesting disquisitions on the old German poems to be found there (Konigsberg, 1796 and 1799), he went to Petersburg, where he took part in the direction of the German theatre. In 1803, he was appointed tutor of the grand princes Nicholas and Michael, and received an order of nobility. He then applied himself with great assiduity to the study of languages, in which he was much assisted by the collection of Backmeister, the librarian. He has written on the Rapports entre la Langue Sanscrite, et la Langue Russe. At the request of his patron, count Romanzoff, chancellor of the empire, he published a description of the remarkable doors of brass belonging to the church of St. Sophia, in Novgorod, which were said to have been cast in Magdeburg in the 11th century, and the most exact engravings of which were prepared by the order of the count. This work, which appeared at Berlin, 1823, with copper and lithographic plates, contains interesting contributions to the history of Russian art, and an essay on the Swedish, or silver door, so called, then in Novgorod, which was brought to Russia, as a trophy, from Sigtuna, the ancient royal residence of Sweden. A. is now preparing a Bibliotheca Glottica, an introduction to which has already been published, entitled Uebersicht aller bekannten Sprachen, Petersburg, 1820.

100 feet high, and consist of a remarkable kind of ferruginous sand-stone. Rain and snow, filling the cavities of the surface during the winter, form collections of water, which gradually filters through the rocks, and produces these clefts. The sand-stone itself has, in the course of time, become very brittle, especially on the surface. The place is a great resort for travellers.

ADES. (See Pluto.)

ADHELM, or ADELM, was born in Wiltshire, in the seventh century. He was made bishop of Shireburn, and extraordinary tales are related of his miraculous powers, and his voluntary chastity. He was, for the times, an eminent scholar, being acquainted with Grecian and Roman literature, a good writer, a poet of some merit, and an excellent musician. His works, which were numerous, are mostly lost.

ADHESION, according to the latest phraseology of physics, means generally the tendency of heterogeneous bodies to stick together; but cohesion implies the attraction of homogeneous particles of bodies. Adhesion may take place between two solids, as two hemispheres of glass, or between a solid and a fluid, or between two fluids, as oil and water. Thus it is said that a fluid adheres to a solid, as water to the finger dipped into it. But there is a great difference, in this respect, in different bodies; thus small particles of quicksilver do not adhere to glass, but they adhere to gold, silver and lead. Water adheres to the greatest part of bodies, unless it is separated from their surface by oily substances, dust, flour, &c. Fluids do not form a surface perfectly horizontal in vessels to which they adhere so as to wet them, but rise, on the contrary, around the brim of the vessels. This is proved by water, beer, &c. poured into glasses, pails, pots, &c. Fluids, on the other hand, in vessels to which they do not adhere, sink around the brim, and rise in the centre. Thus quicksilver in a glass forms a convex surface. This phenomenon of the rising and sinking of fluids becomes still more remarkable in vessels of a small diameter; wherefore capillary tubes, so called, are used for performing experiments, and the singular effects produced are ascribed to capillary attraction. (See Capillary Tubes.) Water poured from a vessel to which it adheres so as to wet it, runs easily down the exterior surface, unless a peculiar direction is given to the vessel. This is never the case with quicksilver poured from a glass;

but it is so if poured from a vessel of lead, &c.

ADIAPHORA (Greek); things indifferent in themselves, and of small importance: 1. objects and actions which deserve neither praise nor blame; 2. in matters of church discipline, customs and rites which may be retained or rejected without injuring belief or troubling conscience, because the holy Scriptures have neither forbidden nor ordained them. This name was originally applied to those instruments and ceremonies of the Catholic church, which the Protestants admitted into their forms of worship, as altars, candlesticks, images, mass-vestments, Latin hymns, vespers and orisons, private mass, &c. On account of this admission, Flacius, a theologian of Jena, in connexion with the clergy of Lower Saxony, commenced a controversy, known by the name of the adiaphoristic controversy, with Melancthon and the divines of Wittenberg, who received the name of Adiaphorists. The same trifles became subsequently marks, by which the strict Lutherans were externally distinguished from the Calvinists, who had retained nothing of this kind. The more enlightened theologians of the 18th century caused the greater part of these external distinctions to be laid aside; but new importance has been attached to them in our days; and the question has again been discussed, "what ceremonies belong to the A.”

ADIPOCIRE, from adeps, fat, and cera, wax; a substance of a light-brown color, formed by the soft parts of animal bodies, when kept for some time in water, or when preserved from atmospheric air. When this substance is subjected to a chemical analysis, a true ammoniacal soap is first yielded, composed of ammonia, a concrete oil, and water. The oil may be obtained pure, and this is called more strictly A. It was discovered on removing the animal matter from the burial ground of the church des Innocens, at Paris, in 1787, amongst the masses of the bodies of the poor there interred together. In this place, about 1500 bodies were thrown together into the same pit, and, being decomposed, were converted into this substance. (See Nicholson's Journal, vol. 4, p. 135; Phil. Trans. 1794, vols. 84, 85; Journal de Physique, tom. 38, &c.)

ADJUTANT; in the military art, an officer whose duty is to assist the major.

ADJUTANT-GENERAL; an officer of distinction who assists the general.-Among the Jesuits, this name was given to a se

lect number of fathers, who resided with the general of the order, and had each a province or country assigned to him, and their office was to inform the father-general of public occurrences in such countries.

ADMETUS. (See Alceste.)

ADMINISTRATOR (Latin); the person to whom the goods of a man dying intestate are committed by the proper authority, for which he is accountable when thereunto required. For matters relating to this title, see Executor.

ADMIRAL; the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country. Probably this word is of Arabic origin, and signifies originally the emir, or prince, of the waters. In the time of the crusades, the office and name were introduced into Europe. The first authentic instance that occurs of admirals in Europe is about 1284, when Philip, king of France, created Enguerrand de Coucy admiral of his fleet. In the reign of Edward I, king of England, we find a title of honor, "Admiral de la mer du roy d'Angleterre," conferred for the first time on W. de Leybourne; and about this time the jurisdiction of the English seas was committed to three or four admirals, who held the office durante bene placito. From the time of Edward II, a regular succession of admirals is to be traced; and in the 34th year of Edward III, John de Beauchamp, lord warden of the Cinque Ports, was created high admiral of England. The office underwent several changes, and persons of high rank, some of whom were entirely unacquainted with naval affairs, continued to fill this office until 1632, when it was first put into commission, as it remained during the protectorate of Cromwell. James, duke of York, afterwards James II, exercised the functions of lord high admiral for several years of Charles II's reign. Many of his regulations are observed to the present time, and evince his zeal for this most important service in England. During the reign of William and Mary, the powers of the lord high admiral were committed to lords commissioners of the admiralty. Prince George of Denmark enjoyed this dignity during a short period of the reign of Anne; since which time it has always been vested in seven lords commissioners, acting under the statute of William and Mary, till the year 1827, when the first step of Mr. Canning, as premier, was to prevail on the duke of Clarence to accept the office of lord high admiral; but

the duke, soon after the formation of the duke of Wellington's administration, gave up the office. The income of the first lord-commissioner is at present equal to £5000 per annum. The surplus revenue forms what are called the droits of admiralty, and is applied at the pleasure of government. To the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the admiralty of England, belongs the power of decision in all maritime cases, both civil and criminal; a jurisdiction upon or beyond the sea in all parts of the world; upon the sea coasts in all ports, havens or harbors, and upon all rivers below the bridge nearest to the sea :-according to the terms of the patent," To preserve all public streams, ports, rivers, fresh waters and creeks whatsoever, within his jurisdiction, as well for the preservation of the ships as of the fishes; to reform too straight nets and unlawful engines, and punish offenders; to arrest ships, mariners, pilots, masters, gunners, bombardiers, and any other persons whatsoever, able and fit for the service of ships, as often as occasion shall require, and wheresoever they shall be met with; to appoint vice-admirals, judges and other officers durante bene placito; to remove, suspend, or expel them, and put others in their places; to take cognizance of civil and maritime laws, and of death, murder and maim." The lord warden of the Cinque Ports has, nevertheless, a jurisdiction exempt from the control of the admiralty within these ports, and the lord admiral seems to have his more proper jurisdiction confined to the main sea. Between high and low water marks, the common law and the admiralty have jurisdiction by turn. By the regulations of the navy, the lord high admiral grants commissions to inferior admirals to enforce obedience in all the branches of the service; to all courts-martial for the trial of offences against the articles of war, upon which they decide by the majority of votes, a deputy judge advocate, who resides at Plymouth, presiding over those of most importance. To the office of lord high admiral are given, as perquisites, by the patent, treasure, deodands and relics found within his jurisdiction; all goods picked up at sea; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, &c.; all whales and large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming into any port, &c. by stress of weather, mistake or ignorance of war; all ships seized at sea, salvage &c., together with his shares of prizes. In ancient times, this officer carried a gold whistle set with

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precious stones.-In France, the admiral (l'amiral) enjoyed, until 1627, very great prerogatives; but Richelieu, deeming the influence of the office too great, abolished it. Louis XIV reestablished it in 1669 with less power. In the revolution, this office, of course, vanished with the abolition of the monarchy. Napoleon renewed the office, and invested his brother-in-law Murat with it. The duke of Angouleme was the first admiral after the restoration of the Bourbons. The highest officers in the French navy have only the title vice-admiral; after these follow the rear-admirals (contre-amiraux).—ADMIRAL THE FLEET; the highest naval officer under the admiralty of Great Britain, who, when he embarks, is distinguished by the hoisting of the union flag at the main-topgallant-mast head. The powers of the lord high admiral of Scotland have been vested, since the union, in the admiralty of Great Britain, which appoints a judge, or vice-admiral, who executes its duties, and presides over an admiralty court in Scotland.-Admirals, being commanders in chief of any fleet or squadron, carry their flags at the main-top-gallant-mast head, from which they are designated as admirals of the red, of the white, of the blue. They rank with field-marshals in the army. The vice-admiral carries his flag at the fore-top-mast head, and takes rank with the lieutenant-generals of the army. The rear-admiral carries his flag at the mizzentop-mast head, and ranks with major-generals.-The United States have no admirals. The board of the navy directs all the affairs of the navy.-The vice-admiral is a civil officer, appointed by the lords commissioners of the admiralty, having judges and marshals under him. From his decisions, however, there is a final appeal to the court of admiralty. The place of vice-admiral of England is now a sinecure. Ireland has four vice-admirals; Scotland one; and the governors of colonies generally hold a commission to preside over vice-admiralty courts. A. is also a name given to the most considerable ship of a fleet of merchantmen, or of the vessels employed in the cod-fishery of Newfoundland. The ship which first arrives is entitled to this appellation, and some privileges; it carries during the fishing season a flag on the main-mast.A. in natural history, a very beautiful shell of the voluta genus. It is sold at a very high price.

ADMIRALTY COURTS have cognizance of civil and criminal causes of a maritime nature, including captures in war

made on the high seas, and likewise of fences committed, and many contracts made thereon. In civil suits, the judges decide unaided. In criminal cases, the judge in England is associated with three or four commissioners; in the United States, he is assisted by a jury. In the latter country, the admiralty jurisdiction is vested in the circuit and district courts of the Union. In England, it is divided between the instance and the prize courts, the former being the ordinary admiralty court, the latter being constituted by a special commission, in time of war, to take cognizance of prizes, though the individuals composing the court are the same in both cases.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS; a cluster of islands to the north of New Britain, in the South Pacific ocean, in about 20 18 S. lat. and 146° 44′ E. lon. There are between 20 and 30. The Dutch discovered them in 1616. The islanders are black, but not of a deep shade; tall, and almost in a state of nudity. They evinced much kindness towards La Perouse. A. I. is likewise an island in George III's Archipelago, on the north-west coast of New Norfolk, in America, between N. lat. 57° and 58° 30, and between W. lon. 134° and 135°. (See Vancouver's Voyage, vol. iii.)

ADOLPHUS of Nassau was elected emperor of Germany, May 1, 1292, and crowned at Aix la Chapelle, June 25. He was of an illustrious family, and of approved courage; but without any patrimony, except his sword, and destitute of those great qualities, which had raised his predecessor, Rodolph of Hapsburg, to the throne. A. owed his election, in part, to the arrogant conduct of Albert of Austria; in part, to his intrigues with the electors of Cologne and Mentz, who imposed on him the hardest conditions, and forced him to resign to them cities and territories, which were not his own. But, refusing to fulfil, when emperor, what he had promised when count, he soon saw himself hated and deserted by his friends. Urged by want of money, he received 100,000 pounds sterling from Edward I of England, and, in return, engaged to assist him against Philip the Fair of France; but he was by no means sorry to see the pope forbid his participation in the war. In this way he made himself contemptible in the eyes of the German princes, and became still more odious to them by taking advantage of the hatred of Albert, landgrave of Thuringia, against his sons, and purchasing this territory from him. 6

VOL. I.

This purchase involved him in a 5 years' war, in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to subjugate the country which he had bought. Disgusted at such disgraceful conduct, and urged on by Albert of Austria, the college of electors, excepting those of Treves, Cologne and the Palatinate, cited Adolphus to appear before it. Failing to appear, the throne was declared vacant, June 23, 1298, and Albert of Austria elected. A war already existed between the two rivals, in which Adolphus seemed superior, until, deceived by the manoeuvres of his foe, he found himself surrounded at Gellheim, and fell, after a heroic resistance, by Albert's own hand, July 2, 1298. His body was deposited by Henry VII in the imperial vault at Spire, at the same time with that of Albert. His faults sprung mostly from the inadequateness of his abilities to his situation. One mistake followed another, and when, in the latter part of his career, he wished to adopt a better course, it was too late.

ADONAI; one of the many Hebrew names for God. The word properly signifies my lords, in the plural number, which is called, in the Hebrew grammar, pluralis majestatis. The Jews, who, from religious reverence, do not pronounce the name Jehovah, read Adonai in all the places in which the former_name occurs. This practice commenced among the latter Ĵews after the Babylonish captivity, at least before the time of Josephus. (See Geddes' Crit. Remarks, vol. i, p. 167, and Leigh's Crit. Sacr. in verb. Kuotos.)

ADONIC. The Adonic verse consists of a dactyle and a spondee or trochee, e. g.

rāră jūvēntus;

and, on account of its animated movement, is adapted to gay and lively poetry. Long poems, however, would become monotonous if written entirely in a measure so short, and recurring with no variety. It is therefore rarely used by itself. Even the ancients always combined it with other kinds of verse; thus the last verse of the Sapphic strophe is Adonic.

ADONIS; Son of Cinyras by his daughter Myrrha. The wood-nymphs educated him, and he grew up so remarkably beautiful, that he became the favorite of Venus, who accompanied him to the chase, pointing out the dangers to which he was exposed. A., disregarding her advice, eagerly pursued the wild beasts of the forest, but, happening to fail in an attack upon a wild boar, he was mortally

wounded by this ferocious animal. The goddess, hearing of his misfortune, hurried to his assistance, and in her haste her foot was wounded by a rose-bush, the flowers of which, formerly white, from that time took the color of blood. When she reached the spot, she found him lifeless on the grass, and, to alleviate her grief and preserve his memory, she transformed him into an anemone. At her request, however, Jupiter permitted A. to spend 6 months with her, and the other 6 with Proserpine. A full explanation of this fable may be found in Creuzer's Symbolik und Mythologie der Völker des Alterthums.

ADOPTIANI; a religious sect which asserted that Christ, as to his divine nature, was properly the Son of God; but, as to his human nature, only such by adoption, by baptism and regeneration, through which God's mercy adopts other men also as his children; for they could not comprehend how a human being could be called the Son of God in a literal sense. Flipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, bishop of Urgel, in Spain, avowed this doctrine in 783, and made proselytes both in Spain and France. Charlemagne condemned their heresy at the council of Ratisbon, and dismissed Felix from his office. This sentence was repeated 3 times; at Frankfort, 794, at Rome and at Aix la Chapelle in 799, because the bishop_relapsed twice into his former error. He was then placed, for the remainder of his life, under the care of the bishop of Lyons. After the death of Flipandus, the whole controversy ceased. The dispute is worthy of notice, both on account of the moderation of Charlemagne, and because the opinion of the Adoptiani has often been made use of by those who have exerted themselves to adapt the doctrine of the divinity of Christ to the comprehension of man. (See Socinians.)

ADOPTION, the admission of a stranger by birth to the privileges of a child, has come down to us in the Roman law. Its purpose was the acquisition of paternal power, which could either be ceded to the person adopting by the natural parent (adoption in the strictest sense), or be obtained by the assent of a person no longer under the patria potestas, or of his guardians. This second sort is called arrogation. According to the ancient civil law, the adopted child left the family of its parents or guardians, and became a member of the family of the person adopting it. The emperor Justinian abolished this prin

ciple in regard to adoption properly so called. Adoption was intended to supply the want of offspring in those persons who might have been parents. Eunuchs, therefore, and persons already having legitimate issue, were excluded from this privilege. The person adopting must have been at least 18 years older than the person to be adopted. Guardians were not permitted to adopt their wards, nor a poor man a rich child. Females, strictly speaking, were not permitted to adopt, but might, with the permission of the sovereign, secure to any child the right of support and inheritance. In Germany, the rules respecting adoption are derived from the civil law, but require the sanction either of the sovereign or of the judiciary. (Civil Code of Austria, 1. 179; Prussian Code, part 2, tit. 2, § 666.) The adopted child receives the name of its adopter, but does not share in his rank if he be a nobleman, except by the special permission of the sovereign. In Prussia, a married couple must have lived many years without children, before they are allowed to adopt a child. The modern French law (Code civile, a. 343) also admits adoption, but only on certain conditions. The code establishes three kinds of adoption-l'adoption ordinaire, la rémunératoire, et la testamentoire. Those who wish to adopt must have supported the person to be adopted for six years, or the adopter's life must have been saved by the person to be adopted. Excepting in this last case, the latter must be as much as fifteen years younger than the former. Adoption (excepting as before) cannot take place until the person to be adopted is of age, and must be ratified by the district court as well as by the court of appeal. There is nothing corresponding with adoption in the law either of England or America. In Asia, adoption is a very common practice. The ceremony is frequently performed merely by the adopting person exchanging girdles with the person adopted. The Turks declare adoption often before the cadi, and a writing regularly witnessed is drawn up. The law of Mahomet prescribes still another very curious ceremony of adoption. The person adopted is required to pass through the shirt of the adopter; and hence the phrase to draw another through one's shirt is, among them, expressive of adoption. An adopted son is called akietogli, that is, the son of another life. Several writers have applied this ceremony as explanatory of many passages both of the Old and New Testaments.