or national advocate (in a narrow sense), who should be considered as the officer of the people, and should be obliged to come forward whenever the interest of the treasury came into collision with that of wards, absentees, and the like. Then this institution would answer the high purposes for which it was designed. (See Das Institut der Staatsanwaltschaft, by Müller, counsellor of state, Leipsic, 1825.) In the United States, the attorney general is an officer under the federal constitution, corresponding substantially to the English law officer of that name. His duty, as defined by the law of congress, is, to prosecute and conduct all suits in the supreme court of the union, in which the United States shall be concerned, and to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law, when required by the president of the United States, or when requested by the officers at the head of any of the departments, touching any matters that may concern their departments. He is also required to examine all letters patent for useful inventions, and to certify to the secretary of state whether they are conformable to the law on that subject, previously to the public seal being affixed to them. The attorney general of the United States is also a member of the president's cabinet council. In addition to this law officer, the government of the United States has in each of the states (which, in judicial proceedings, are styled districts) a district attorney, as he is called, whose duty it is, within his particular state, to prosecute, on behalf of the United States, all delinquents for crimes and offences cognizable under the authority of the United States' laws, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be concerned, except those which come before the supreme court, in the district in which that court shall be holden. Besides these law officers of the general government of the United States, each of the states of the union has its attorney general and subordinate public prosecutors, or attorneys, for its territorial subdivisions or districts; and their duties are, to prosecute and defend in all causes, criminal and civil, arising under the local laws of their respective states, and in which their own state is concerned. and of a civil character were committed to procurators. The advocates of England and France are often men of high rank, enjoying an ample income and the prospect of attaining to the highest dignities of the state. Men of the best talents, therefore, are found in their ranks. In Germany and some of the other countries of Europe, the advocates occupy a comparatively subordinate station in the courts. The profession is there considered only as a preparatory step to public employments, and these frequently of an humble description. This is the cause of the inferiority of the German lawyers in general to those of England and France; and the whole administration of justice there suffers from the same cause. There are exceptions, however, in some of the German states, particularly in Prussia. In the French revolution, the lawyers acted the most important part in public affairs. Advocati ecclesiarum, superintendents of the property of the church, divided, according to their several offices, into defensores, causidici, actores, pastores laici, &c., were first appointed under the consulship of Stilico. The pope, at the same time, issued orders, that the bishops, abbots and churches should have good advocates. These offices were first intrusted to canons, but afterwards were held even by monarchs; e. g. the German emperor, the king of France, &c. became advocati of the Roman church. The advocates set over single churches administered justice in secular affairs in the name of the bishops and the abbots, and had jurisdiction over their whole dioceses. In case of necessity, they defended the property of the clergy by force of arms. In the courts of justice, they pleaded the causes of the churches with which they were connected. They superintended the collection of the tithes and the other revenues of the church, and enjoyed, on the part of the convents, many benefices and considerable revenues. After a time, these advocates and their assistants becoming a burden to the clergy and the people under their charge, who began to suffer severely from their avarice, the churches attempted to get rid of them. Urban III labored to deliver the church from these ADVOCATES. This profession has play- oppressors, but was astonished to find, A. ed a conspicuous part in almost every D. 1186, the German prelates, in concivilized country. Among the Romans, nexion with the emperor Frederic I, opthe greatest statesmen and orators belong-posed to it. Under the emperor Frederic ed to this class, devoting themselves especially to the defence of criminal causes of importance. Those of less consequence 7 VOL. I. II, most of the German churches succeeded, however, in abolishing these offices by the grant of large sums of money . 74 ADVOCATES-ÆDILES. and of various immunities.-In the U. States, the profession of the law possesses an extensive influence upon society. It embraces, as it does in England, various classes of lawyers, such as proctors, conveyancers, solicitors, attorneys, and lastly, and above all, counsellors, or advocates. In the U. States, the different branches of the profession are often carried on by the same person, though this practice is not universal, especially in large cities. The higher ranks of lawyers in the U. States enjoy great public and private confidence. Many of them are selected for the first public employments in the state, e. g. for the presidency, for the office of senators and representatives in the national and state legislatures, for governors, for secretaries of the great departments, and for foreign embassies. From this class of men are also taken, almost as a matter of course, the judges of the various courts in the union. The constitutions and laws of the several states entitle every person, in civil as well as criminal cases, to the assistance of counsel, and generally two are admitted on each side. All trials are public, and forensic eloquence is eagerly heard. The profession of the law is very numerous in the U. States, on account both of its emoluments, and its free access to public favor and patronage. There is no difficulty in gaining admission to the courts, as an advocate, after three or four years of preparatory studies; and, after admission, success is generally in proportion to talents and industry, and devotion to juridical studies. Of the seven presidents of the U. States, six were bred to the law. ADVOCATE'S LIBRARY. In 1660, the faculty of advocates in Edinburgh found ed a library upon an extensive plan, suggested by sir George M'Kenzie, of Rosehaugh, advocate to Charles II and James II, who enriched it with many valuable books. It has been daily increasing since that time. It contains, besides law-books, works on all subjects, many original manuscripts, and a great variety of coins and medals. ADVOWSON (from advoco); in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant church. The name is derived from advocatio, because the right was first obtained by such as were founders, benefactors, or strenuous defenders (advocates) of the church. Those who have this right are styled patrons. Advowsons are of three kinds-presentative, collative and donative; presentative, when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; collative, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or collates his clerk by a single act; donative, when a church is founded by the king, and assigned to the patron without being subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without presentation, institution or induction. ADY; the palm-tree of the island of St. Thomas. Its juice supplies the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit, called abanga, is of the shape and size of a lemon, and is eaten roasted. An oil, prepared from this fruit, answers the purpose of butter. ADYTUM (from a, not, and duw, to enter); the most retired and sacred place in the ancient temples, into which priests only were allowed to enter. It corresponded to the Jewish holy of holies (sanctum sanctorum). EACUS; son of Jupiter and the nymph Ægina, daughter of the river god Asopus. He acquired the government of the island called after his mother, and became, by his uprightness, a favorite with the gods. In compliance with his prayers, his father peopled anew the island, which had been depopulated by the plague. The new inhabitants sprung from ants, and were termed, on that account, Myrmidons. Greece, too, was delivered, at his entreaty, from a great drought and famine. The name of his wife was Endeis, and Peleus and Telamon were his children. E., on account of his love of justice, was joined with Minos and Rhadamanthus in the office of judging the dead. His particular duty was the distribution of rewards and punishments. He is represented as seated upon a tribunal, bearing a crown and sceptre; as a distinguishing mark, he carries the key of the infernal world, given to him by Pluto. EDILES; Roman magistrates of secondary rank, who had the supervision of public spectacles and public edifices, and decided questions relating to the erection of buildings, and to the police of the market. At first, there were but two, chosen from the common people (adiles plebeii). At the end of the 4th century from the foundation of Rome, two more were added from among the patricians, to whom an ivory chair (sella curulis) was allowed, and who were thence called ædiles curules. Julius Cæsar added the third class (ædiles Cereales), to whose care the public granaries were intrusted. ÆGEON; in ancient mythology, a huge giant, the son of Titan and Terra, who was fabled to have had 100 hands, with which he threw 100 rocks at once at Jupiter, who, when he had overcome him, bound him with 100 chains. ÆGEAN SEA; the ancient name of the modern Archipelago (q. v.; see also Egeus). EGEUS; king of Athens and father of Theseus, by Ethra, daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezene. He caused him to be secretly educated at Troezene, to deceive the sons of Pallas (Pallantides), who expected to succeed him, on the supposition that he was childless. In order that he might recognise his son, he concealed a sword, and some other articles, under a stone, on his departure from Troezene, and left orders that Theseus should bring them to Athens when he had reached a certain age. As soon as this young hero became acquainted with his birth, he has tened to Athens, where he was at first repulsed, and in danger of his life; but his father finally acknowledged him, and declared him successor to his throne. Under the erroneous idea that Theseus had been devoured by the Minotaur, E. plunged into the sea, from which circumstance the Archipelago, between Greece and Asia, as far as the Hellespont, received the name of the Egean sea. (See Theseus.) EGINA, NOW ENGIA, or EGINA ; a Grecian island in the Saronic gulf, about 30 miles in circumference. In ancient times, it constituted an independent state, and was rich and flourishing by reason of its commerce. The Greeks had a common temple in it, dedicated to Jupiter. The capital of this island was called also Egina. EGINETAN STYLE AND MONUMENTS OF ART. An association of English and German artists and lovers of the arts was formed in 1811, chiefly with a view of obtaining an architectural survey of the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, at Ægina, which is one of the most beautiful remains of the Doric architecture. A sketch of this temple may be found in the English Journal of Science, and in Isis, a periodical edited by Oken, in Germany. This undertaking was amply rewarded by a fine collection of valuable sculpture, which once adorned the eastern and western fronts of that noble edifice. It was purchased by the king of Bavaria in 1812, and the deficient parts restored by Thorwaldson. Every member of the association received a cast of it carefully executed in plaster of Paris. These works are valuable as faithful imitations of nature, and for the light which they shed over one of the darkest periods in the history of art. They show that the Æginetan style of art was independent of the Attic. Pausanias calls Smilis the Dædalus of Ægina, assures us that he was the contemporary of Dædalus, and ascribes therefore to the Æginetan style equal antiquity and independence with the Attic. The language and manners of Ægina were Doric; and its sculpture has a Doric character, as distinct from the Attic (which was originally Ionic) as Doric poetry and architecture. The characteristic peculiarity and aim of the Æginetan style is the faithful and exact imitation of nature, carried even to deception. Attic art was a daughter of the Ægyptian, and a striving after the ideal is perceptible in both. To gain a clear idea of primitive art, we must distinguish between the Egyptian, ancient Attic, Æginetan and Etrurian styles. Rudeness, stiffness and meagerness belong to the first attempts in every art. In other respects, they differ from one another, although, at a later period, they exercise a mutual influence. The perfection of art in Phidias has hitherto appeared almost a miracle; but we now comprehend how the Æginetan school, imitating nature with almost perfect exactness, pointed out the way to the ancient Attic, teaching it to rise from the abstract to the living, from the conventional to the natural. Thus we find the long-desired link of connexion between the ancient severe and beautiful styles. Since the creations of Phidias, the traces of the proper Æginetan style have disappeared. There was subsequently, therefore, only one perfect style of art, which spread over all Greece; and Æginetan became the name for primitive sculpture. Smilis was the father and founder of the Æginetan style of art; next to him came Callon, who lived between the 60th and 70th Olympiads (540-500 B. C.) About the time of Phidias, there lived the following masters, famous in this style: Anaxagoras, who made the Jupiter which was placed in Olympia at the common expense of all the Greeks, who fought victoriously at Platæa, B. C. 379; Simon, the maker of the consecrated offering of a certain Phormis at Olympia; and Glaucias and Onatas, who flourished in the 78th Olympiad. The Æginetan figures now exhibited at Munich are 17. They may be divided into 4 classes: 1. upright, 76 ÆGINETAN STYLE-ÆGISTHUS. clothed, and female; 2. advancing or fighting combatants; 3. kneeling, or archers; 4. lying, or wounded. The largest of these figures is Minerva. She is a little above the human size; all the others are rather below this measure. If we consider the style of these works, there prevails in every part of the bodies, the head excepted, a minute imitation of nature, without the least traces of the ideal. Still the imitation is neither poor nor offensive to the rules of art, but a good copy of beautiful nature, with the most perfect knowledge of the bones and muscles. With respect to proportion, these figures are slender, rather small at the hips, and the legs remarkably long. There is much life in the attitudes, though they are not altogether free from a certain stiffness, such as may be observed in the paintings of Giotto, Masaccio, Perugino, &c. The heads seem to belong to an earlier epoch of art; the eyes project, and are lengthened somewhat in the Chinese fashion; the mouth has prominent lips, with well marked edges; the corners in some are turned up; the nose is rather small; the ears finished with the greatest care; the chin is full, and generally too large. They all look alike, and exhibit not the slightest expression of passion; between conquerors and conquered, gods and men, there is not the least difference. The appearance of the hair is not natural, but stiff and conventional. The arms are rather short; the hands natural to deception; not a wrinkle of the skin is forgotten. The legs are well shaped ; the knees masterly; the feet elegant; and the toes, which are rather too long, run out parallel. The drapery is close to the body, with folds artificially arranged. Though the style is hard, the execution is tasteful and elaborate. They were apparently made at the same time, but not by the same artist. No one of them has any support, and they are equally finished on all sides. The number of figures originally amounted to 30 at least. They were symmetrically arranged on both fronts of the temple. The Minerva stood in the middle, the standing warriors next, then the archers, and the lying figures last. The temple was not intentionally destroyed, but was probably thrown down by an earthquake. Since Eacus erected this temple to Jupiter Panhellenius, it is probable that the figures represent the battles of the Eacidæ, under the protection of Minerva. The two contests in which the acidæ distinguished themselves most gloriously were the Trojan war and the naval battle EGINHARD. (See Eginhard.) EGIS; the shield of Jupiter, who is called by Homer the Egis-bearer. It derives its name from the she-goat Egis, which suckled the god in Crete, and with the skin of which the shield was covered. Also the shield of Pallas or Minerva, in the middle of which was the head of Medusa. Sometimes the cuirass of Medusa is thus called. In a figurative sense, Æ. denotes protection. ÆGISTHUS. (See Agamemnon.) ALFRIC; archbishop of Canterbury in the 10th century. He composed a Latin Saxon vocabulary, which was printed by Somner, under the title of a Glossary, Oxon. 1659. Æ. translated also most of the historical books of the Old Testament, and canons for the regulation of the clergy, which are inserted in Spelman's Councils. He frequently assisted his country in a spirited resistance of the Danish invaders, and died highly venerated, Nov. 1005. ELIANUS Claudius; a Greek author who lived at Præneste, about A. D. 221. He was a learned sophist, and has left two works, compiled in a pretty good style-a collection of stories and anecdotes, and a natural history of animals. Of the first work, one of the best critical editions was published by Gronovius, at Leyden, 1731, 2 vols. 4to. Later editions have been published by Kühn, Leipsic, 1780, and Coray, Paris, 1805. EMILIUS, Paulus, surnamed Macedonicus; a noble Roman of the ancient family of the Æmilii. He conquered Perseus, king of Macedon, and on this occasion obtained a triumph, A. U. C. 586; B. C. 168. During the triumph, two of his sons died. He bore the loss like a hero, and thanked the gods that they had chosen them for victims, to avert bad fortune from the Roman people. He was father of the renowned Scipio Africanus the younger. His father, a brave general in the second Punic war, commanded and was slain at the battle of Cannæ, B. C. 216. ENEAS; Son of Anchises and Venus, next to Hector the bravest among the heroes of Troy. He is the hero of the Eneid, in which his life is thus described: In the night of the capture of Troy by the Greeks, Hector warned him in a dream to fly with the images of his gods. Æ. rushed, notwithstanding this warning, to the fight, but fought in vain. After Priam was slain, he returned, at the command of his mother, to his home, and carried off his father, his child and his household gods; but lost his wife, Creusa, in the confusion of his flight. With 20 vessels, he sailed for Thrace, where he began to build the city Enos, but, terrified by a miracle, abandoned the attempt. From thence he went to Delos to consult the oracle. Misunderstanding its reply, he went to Crete, from which he was driven by a pestilence. Thence he directed his course to the promontory of Actium, where he celebrated games in honor of Apollo. In Epirus he found Helenus and Andromache. Thence he sailed by Italy, passed the straits of Messina, and circumnavigated Sicily to cape Drepanum on the western coast, where Anchises died. A tempest drove him on the shore of Africa, where Dido received him kindly in Carthage, and desired to detain and marry him. Jupiter, however, mindful of the fates, sent Mercury to Æ. and commanded him to sail for Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile, Æneas set sail with his companions, and was cast by a storm on the shore of Sicily, in the dominions of his Trojan friend Acestes, where he celebrated funeral games in honor of his deceased father. The wives of his companions, weary of a seafaring life, and instigated by Juno, set fire to the ships, on which he resolved to depart, leaving behind the women and the sick. In this resolution he was confirmed by Anchises, who admonished him in a dream to descend, by the aid of the sibyl, into the infernal regions, after his arrival in Italy. He built the city Acesta, and then sailed for Italy, where he found the sibyl, near Cuma, who foretold his destiny, and aided his descent into the lower world. On his return, he embarked again, and reached the eastern shore of the river Tiber, in the country of the Laurentian king Latinus. His daughter, Lavinia, was destined by an oracle to a stranger, but promised by her mother, Amata, to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. This occasioned a war, after the termination of which, Æ. married Lavinia. Thus Virgil relates the history of Æneas in his Æneid, deviating in many particulars from historical truth. His son by Lavinia, Æneas Sylvius, was the ancestor of the kings of Albalonga, and of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome. By his first wife, he had a son, Ascanius, who built Albalonga, from whose son, Iulus, the Romans derived the Julian family. For the dif ferent traditions respecting Æneas, and the probability of their late introduction among the Romans, see Niebuhr's Roman History, chapter entitled Eneas and the Trojans in Latium. NEID. (See Virgil.) ENESIDEMUS; a sceptical philosopher, born at Gnossus, who flourished a little later than Cicero, and taught scepticism, in Alexandria, to a greater extent than had been done before. He placed truth in the general agreement of men as to the impressions produced by external objects. ENIGMA; a proposition put in ob |