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India islands. In the autumn of the same year, he went into winter quarters at Utrecht. Here he became acquainted with several scientific men, and published a collection of his poems Utrecht, 1684). A splendid edition of them appeared at Amsterdam in 1711, 4to. He afterwards received a military appointment at Amsterdam, which afforded him leisure for literary pursuits. He published an edition of the poems of Sannazarius, and also of Palearius's works, an edition of Propertius (Amsterdam, 1702 and 1726, 4to.), and Tibullus (Amsterdam, 1708 and 1727, 4to.), with critical notes. In these works, he displayed extensive knowledge. After the peace of Ryswick, he received his dismission, with the rank of a captain. He died in 1707.

BROGLIO; a family distinguished in the annals of French wars and French diplomacy, which derives its origin from Piedmont.-1. François Marie, marshal of France, born in 1671, died in 1745; from 1689, fought with distinction in the Netherlands, in Germany and Italy. He was also employed in diplomatic affairs. He rose by degrees, till, in 1734, he became marshal of France. In the Austrian war of succession, he had the chief command of the armies of Bavaria and Bohemia; but, leading them back to the frontiers of France, he fell into disgrace at court.-2. Victor François, the eldest son of the preceding, likewise marshal of France, born in 1718, commenced his career in the battles of Guastalla and Parma (1734); was engaged in all the wars of France, and was always distinguished for his valor, though not uniformly successful. During the seven years' war, he fought under d'Estrées at Hastenbeck, and at Rossbach under Soubise. He was more successful as commander-inchief at Bergen. The emperor, to reward him for the victory obtained at that place, created him a prince of the empire. Disputes with Soubise, who was in particular favor with madame de Pompadour, caused his recall and banishment. In 1789, when the revolution broke out, Louis XVI appointed him minister of war; at the same time, he received the command of the troops that were to keep Paris in check. The desertion of the national guards rendered all his efforts vain, and B. left France. In the campaign of 1792, he commanded a division of the émigrés without success. After its close, he withdrew entirely from public life, and died at Münster in 1804, in the 86th year of his age.-3. Claude Victor,

the third son of Victor François, on the other hand, entered wholly into the views of the revolutionary party. He was deputy of the nobility of Colmar to the states general. After the dissolution of the constituent assembly, he was appointed fieldmarshal in the army of the Rhine, but, upon his refusal to acknowledge the decrees of the 10th of August, was deprived of his command, and afterwards, on the same account, summoned before the revolutionary tribunal, and led to the guillotine in June, 1794.-4. Charles François, a brother of Victor François, is known in the history of French diplomacy as the head of the secret ministry of Louis XV. Although B. discharged the duties of this difficult office with much ability, yet, as his views were often in direct opposition to those of the public ministry, the greatest and the most ridiculous confusion was often produced. He was, therefore, formally banished by the king; but, at the same time, received secret instructions to continue his usual duties in his exile. Under Louis XVI, he was not employed, and died in 1781.-5. Victor, peer of France, a son of Claude Victor: see the following article.

BROGLIO, Victor, duke of, peer of France, born in 1785, married a daughter of the celebrated madame de Staël. His grandfather was the marshal duke of B., who was distinguished in the seven years' war. His father, Victor, notwithstanding the patriotism which he had always displayed, fell a victim to the revolutionary tribunal. The son received an excellent education, and devoted himself, at first, to literature and the fine arts. But he soon engaged in more serious studies, and in political affairs. He became counsellor of state, auditor, military intendant in Illyria and Valladolid, and was attached to the French embassies in Warsaw, Vienna and Prague. In 1814, he took his seat in the chamber of peers, where he gave splendid proofs of his intimate acquaintance with the present state of society, and with the legislation adapted to it. In the trial of Ney, he was one of the few peers who voted for his acquittal. He spoke with energy against the laws of exception and the proscription lists. At the time when the ministry was making efforts to extend the power of the police, the following observation of his met with great approbation: "The existing government (said he) wish to know all things, and to confine this knowledge to themselves. Hence arises the inconvenience, that the public remains ignorant of facts by which

the government are guided, and the government of the opinions of the public." In the debates upon the censorship of the public journals, he observed: "A new government may more readily grant freedom of speech, as it is not called upon to defend former abuses. Restrictions on the liberty of the press prevent the ministers from acquiring a knowledge of their real situation, and discredit them with the nation. The restraint of the press can only be of importance to ministers, who throw themselves into the arms of a violent party, with the intention of allowing it an unlimited license." The duke is profoundly versed in the whole department of political economy.

BROKER; an agent who is employed to conclude bargains, or transact other business, for his employer, for a certain fee or premium. Brokers are of several kinds merchandise, money, exchange, ship, insurance, real estate, pawn, stock brokers, c. Exchange brokers negotiate notes and bills of exchange; money brokers exchange different kinds of money; these two classes are not unfrequently united. Merchandise brokers make contracts for the sale of merchandise. Pawn brokers make it their business to lend money upon pawns. Insurance brokers are those whose business it is to procure insurance of vessels at sea or bound on a voyage. They are, at once, the agents of the underwriters (who expect from them a full disclosure of all circumstances affecting the risk, and the payment of their premiums), and of the party insured (who trusts to them for the regularity of the contract, and a proper selection of underwriters). An agent or broker should not, therefore, be an insurer; for he then becomes too much interested to settle with fairness the rate of premium, the amount of partial losses, &c. Stock brokers are those who are employed to buy and sell shares in the stocks, including the public funds of their own and other countries, bank stock, &c. In the U. States, brokers are not required to be licensed, nor to give bonds. In France, the brokers who deal in money, exchange, merchandise, insurance and stock, are called agents de change, and their number at Paris is fixed at 60. The company of agents de change is directed by a chamber of syndics (chambre syndicale), chosen annually by the company. They are obliged to give bonds to the amount of 125,000 francs, for the prevention of abuses. They are also obliged to keep books, and are restricted to from 1 to 4 per cent. for each

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negotiation. They are allowed to deal in the public funds, foreign and domestic, and the different kinds of merchandise, &c. In London, the brokers must be licensed by the lord mayor, who takes bonds for the faithful execution of their duties. In Egypt, the Arabs are the exchange brokers, and are called consuls. In the Levant and the Indies, the Jews, Armenians and Banians are the chief brokers.

BROME; a peculiar substance discovered in 1826, and named from the Greek Bowpos, in consequence of its disagreeable odor. It is obtained from the bittern of sea-water, or the washings of the ashes of sea-weed. It is a dark-red liquid, of a specific gravity of 2.965, highly volatile, and emits copious red fumes at the ordinary temperature of the air. It boils at 116°. The vapor does not sustain the combustion of a candle, though several of the metals burn in it. It possesses the bleaching powers of chlorine, and, like that substance, is eminently hostile to life; a single drop of it, placed upon the bill of a bird, being sufficient to kill it. With oxygen and hydrogen it forms acids. Its properties have led to the opinion, that it might be a compound of chlorine and iodine; but, as neither of these substances have been detected in it, we are, for the present at least, obliged to regard it as a simple element.

BROMELIA. (See Pine-Apple.)

BROMIUS; a surname of Bacchus.

BRONKHORST, Peter van; a Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1588, and died in 1661. He painted, with great success, perspective views of temples and churches, enlivened with small but well executed human figures. In the town-house of Delft is his representation of Solomon's judgment.-John van B., born at Leyden in 1648, learned the art of painting without any instruction, and attained to a high degree of perfection. He principally painted animals, and was particularly successful in his birds. The lightness and brilliancy of the feathers are represented with much truth. He was a pastry-cook, and painted merely for his amusement.-Another John van B., born at Utrecht in 1603, was a painter on glass. His works in the new church at Amsterdam are much esteemed. He has also engraved some works of Cornelius Poelenburg.

BRONNER, Francis Xaver, born in 1758, at Hochstadt, on the Danube, of the lowest extraction, while a boy, entered the Jesuit college at Dillingen, as a singer

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He afterwards became a Benedictine monk, and devoted himself, with the greatest zeal, to the study of philosophy and mathematics, as well as to music and poetry. He fled twice from the monastery, and took shelter in Zürich. In 1810, he was made professor in Kazan, in Russia, whence he returned in 1817. His poems, in particular his piscatory idyls, are interesting for their truth and simplicity, and the refined feeling of moral and natural beauty which pervades them. He wrote his own life, in 3 vols. BRONZE. For the mode in which this metal is prepared, see Copper.

BRONZES, in archæology; works of art cast in bronze. The ancients used bronze for a great variety of purposes: arms and other instruments, medals and statues, of this metal, are to be found in all cabinets of antiquities. Egyptian idols of bronze are contained in the British museum. The most celebrated antique bronze statues are, the sleeping satyr; the two youthful athletes; the colossal equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome; the Hercules of the capitol; the colossal head of Commodus; the statue of Septimius Severus in the Barberini palace. The horses of St. Mark, at Venice, are of pure copper. On tables of bronze were inscribed laws, edicts, and treaties. 3000 of these were destroyed by fire in the time of Vespasian. Bass-reliefs, vaults, and doors of public edifices, were ornamented with decorations of the same metal. Urban VIII took from the Pantheon alone 450,000 pounds of bronze, which he used for the ornaments of St. Peter's, and for the cannon of the castle of St. Angelo. One of these was composed wholly of bronze nails, taken from the portico, and bore the inscription, Ex clavis trabalibus porticus Agrippa. The ancients considered this metal as naturally pure; all their instruments of sacrifice, and sacred vessels, were therefore of bronze. They also believed it endowed with the power of driving away spectres and malignant spirits. (Ov. Met. vii. 226, and Fast. v. 441.) The words moneta sacra are found only on bronze medals. It was sacred to the gods; and the Roman emperors, who struck gold and silver coins, could not strike them of bronze without the permission of the senate; hence the inscription S. C. (Senatus consulto). (For the method of casting in bronze among the ancients, see Winckelmann's History of Art, book ii.) The moderns have also made much use of bronze, particularly for statues exposed to accidents, or the

influence of the atmosphere, and for casts of celebrated antiques. The moulds are made on the pattern, of plaster and brick dust. The parts are then covered on the inside with a coating of clay as thick as the bronze is intended to be. The mould is now closed, and filled on its inside with a nucleus or core of plaster and brickdust, mixed with water. When this is done, the mould is opened, and the clay carefully removed. The mould, with its core, are then thoroughly dried, and the core secured in its position by bars of bronze, which pass into it through the external part of the mould. The whole is then bound with iron hoops, and the melted bronze is poured in through an aperture left for the purpose: of course, the bronze fills the same cavity which was previously occupied by the clay, and forms a metallic covering to the core. It is afterwards made smooth by mechanical means.

BRONZING. Bronze of a good quality acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tint, called patina antiqua, or, by the Romans, arugo. Corinthian brass receives in this way a beautiful clear green color. This appearance is imitated by an artificial process, called bronzing. A solution of sal ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vinegar is used for bronzing metals. Any number of layers may be applied, and the shade becomes deeper in proportion to the number applied. For bronzing sculptures of wood, plaster, figures, &c. a composition of yellow ochre, Prussian blue, and lampblack, dissolved in gluewater, is employed.

BRONZINO, Angelo, a painter of the Florentine school, and imitator of Michael Angelo, flourished about 1550. He painted a great number of portraits; and his historical paintings are distinguished by the striking and pleasing features of the heads which they contain. One of his best paintings is a Christ, in the church Santa Croce, at Florence. It is remarkable for its grouping and coloring, as well as for the heads, many of which are the portraits of his friends and contemporaries; yet it is not altogether free from mannerism and affectation. Some persons have found fault with the nakedness of his figures. He died at Florence, 1570.

BROODING. (See Ornithology.)

BROOKLYN, a post-town of New York in King's county, on the west end of Long Island, separated from the city of New York by East river. Population in 1810, 4,402; in 1820, 7,175. The village of B., within the township, is incorporat

ed, and has a pleasant and somewhat elevated situation, opposite to the city of New York, from which it is three fourths of a mile distant. It is a flourishing village, compactly and handsomely built, having various manufactures, and an extensive trade; and contained, in 1825, 8,800 inhabitants, and 5 houses of public worship. To the east of the village is a tract of land called the Wallaboght, which is the site of a navy-yard, and public store-houses, belonging to the U. States. Between B. and Flatbush, on the south, a severe battle was fought during the revolutionary war, between the British and Americans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss.

BROOKS, John, was born in Medford, Mass. in the year 1752. His father was a respectable farmer. After receiving a common education at the town school, young B. was indented as an apprentice, according to the prevailing custom, to doctor Simon Tufts, for the space of seven years. He here contracted an intimacy with the celebrated count Rumford, which was continued by correspondence until the latter's death. After completing his studies, he commenced the practice of his profession in the neighboring town of Reading; but he had not been long so engaged, when the revolutionary war broke out, and he was appointed to command a company of minute men, whom he soon had an opportunity of exercising against the British, on their retreat from Lexington and Concord.-He was soon after raised to the rank of major in the continental service, and was distinguished for his knowledge of tactics, being considered as second, in that respect, to baron Steuben alone, with whom he was associated in the duty of introducing a uniform system of exercise and manoeuvres.—In 1777, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and had no small share in the capture of Burgoyne, on the 7th of October, at Saratoga.-When the conspiracy of some of the officers against the commander-in-chief, in March, 1783, had well nigh ruined the country, Washingto Brooks, and requested him to keep his officers within quarters, to prevent their attending the insurgent meeting. Brooks replied, "Sir, I have "Sir, I have anticipated your wishes, and my orders are given." Washington took him by the hand, and said, “Colonel Brooks, this is just what I expected from you." He was one of the committee who brought in the resolutions of the officers, expressing their abhorrence of this plot, and also

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one of that appointed by the officers to adjust their accounts with congress.After the army was disbanded, colonel Brooks resumed the practice of medicine in Medford and the neighboring towns. He was soon after elected a member of the Massachusetts medical society, and, on its extension, and new organization, in the year 1803, a counsellor. He was for many years major-general of the militia of his county, and his division, during the insurrection of 1786, was very efficient in the protection of the courts of justice, and the support of the government. General Brooks also represented his town in the general court, and was a delegate in the state convention, for the adoption of the federal constitution, of which he was one of the most zealous advocates. In the late war with England, he was the adjutant-general of governor Strong, and was chosen to succeed him on his retirement from office, almost without opposition. As governor, he discharged his duties with signal ability and excellent temper. He was president of many literary, religious, patriotic, benevolent and professional societies.After discharging, for seven successive years, the duties of chief magistrate, he retired to private life, and spent his remaining years in the town of Medford, where he was much beloved. The inhabitants referred to him all their disputes, and his decisions generally satisfied both parties. The death of this excellent man took place in the 73d year of his age, March 1st, 1825.—As a physician, he was judicious and accurate in his investigations, and clear in his discernment; prudent rather than bold, and kind and attentive to his patients. mind was active, ardent, and indefatigable. His whole conduct was regulated by the purest sentiments of morality and religion, imbibed at an early period.

His

BROOM; a genus of plants which includes numerous species. The common broom (spartium scoparium) is a shrub growing abundantly on sandy pastures and heaths in England. It is distinguished by having large, yellow, butterflyshaped flowers, leaves in threes, and single, and the branches angular. This is a handsome shrub, and one of the most useful of the common plants of Great Britain. Its twigs are tied in bundles, and formed into brooms. Some persons roast the seeds, and make them into a kind of coffee. The fibrous and elastic parts of the bark, separated by soaking in water, may be manufactured into cor

dage, matting, and even into a coarse kind of cloth. The twigs and young pranches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark in tanning leather. They may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses and cornricks; and some persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they are wholesome. The flower-buds, when pickled, have, occasionally, been used as a substitute for capers. The wood, when the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated, by doctor Mead, that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy.-Spanish broom, or spart (spartium junceum), is an ornamental flowering shrub, common in English gardens, which has opposite round branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves. In the province of Valencia, and other parts of Spain, great attention is paid to the manufacture of various articles from the twigs and bark of this shrub. They are plaited into mats, carpets, covering for plants, baskets, ropes, and even shoes. A great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different French ports in the Mediterranean, particularly to Marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived the Spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the government.

BROSSES, Charles de, first president of the parliament of Burgundy, was born at Dijon in 1709. He applied himself to the study of law, and, at the same time, did not neglect the arts and sciences. His intimate acquaintance with Roman history produced in him a desire of visiting Italy, whither he went in 1739. On his return, he published his Letters on the present Condition of the subterraneous City Herculaneum (Dijon, 1750). Ten years afterwards appeared his treatise on the religious worship called Fetisch. At the request of Buffon, who had been his friend from youth, he wrote a History of the Voyages to Australia (1756). At that time, it was generally believed that there was a southern continent, to which De B. gave the name of Magellania. The erroneous nature of this supposition was first made known by Cook. A work of a very different kind succeeded this, and displayed the extent and variety of the author's learning. This was a treatise on the mechanical formation of languages. I contained, together with many imper

fections, numerous curious and profound investigations, ingenious conjectures, and penetrating views. De B. employed himself, through his whole life, on a work which was held in no slight estimation by the learned. This was a translation of Sallust, in which he labored to supply the lost parts of this historian. For this purpose, he collected above 700 fragments of Sallust, by means of which, with some important additions, he composed a history of the 7th century of the Roman republic, displaying a great extent of erudition. The work would have been received with greater approbation, if the graces of style had been joined to the depth and sagacity of research which it manifests. Though these various labors claimed a large portion of his time, yet they did not hinder him from attending to the duties of his office. He died in 1777. The manuscripts which he left were lost during the revolution.

BROTHEL. (See Bawdy-House.)
BROTHERHOOD, HOLY. (See Herman-

dad.)

BROTHERHOODS. (See Fraternities.) BROTHERS; male children of the same father or mother, or both. Among the ancients, the term was employed to denote more remote relations. Thus, among the Jews, Abraham was called the brother of Lot, his nephew. By the civil law, brothers and sisters stand in the second degree of consanguinity: by the canon law, they are in the first degree. In the monastic and military orders, the members were called brothers, as being united in one family. In Europe, the kings address each other by the title of brother: the president of the U. States uses the same title in addressing the Indian chiefs who are sent to talk with him.

BROUGHAM, Henry, was born at London, in 1779. He attracted public notice, originally, as one of the principal contrib utors to the Edinburgh Review. Souna learning, a terse and expressive style, logical reasoning, vigor and independence of thought, were the distinguishing traits of his compositions. But his efforts as a parliamentary orator, as an advocate, and as a public benefactor, have given him the most extensive reputation, and raised him to an enviable height in public opinion. As an advocate, he stands in the front rank of the English bar; and the variety of his talents and acquisitions have served to reflect credit upon his character as a lawyer; while the solid footing of professional eminence has commu nicated authority and weight to his exer