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quence of the ice in the river, neither he nor general Irvine, the commander of another division, could cross the river in time. But, the day after Washington's return, he effected the passage, supposing him still on the Jersey side, and pursued the vanquished enemy to Burlington. In 1778, he was appointed by congress general of cavalry-an appointment which he declined on the score of being more useful in the station which he occupied. He died Feb. 10, 1786, in the 44th year of his age.

CELIUS MONS, one of the hills of the city of Rome, received its name from Cælius Vibenna, an Etruscan, to whom it was assigned. The palace of Tullus Hostilius was on this mount. In the time of Tiberius, it received the name Augustus. It is at present covered with ruins, which serve to excite the curiosity and baffle the ingenuity of antiquaries.

CAEN; a large and well-built town of France, the ancient capital of Lower Normandy, and the chief place in the department of Calvados. According to Dupin (Forces productives commerciales de la France, 1828), it is one of the most important cities of the west of France, with a population of 37,890 inhabitants, the centre of an important domestic trade, the market of a rich agricultural district, a seaport and a manufacturing city. Its institutions, literary, charitable and scientific, are numerous, and very well organized. The antiquarian society, the Linnæan society, the agricultural society, and the academy of science, arts and literature, are distinguished. C. also contains one of the 26 academies of the university (académie universitaire), a royal college, a large and valuable public library, an academy of drawing, architecture and sculpture, a gallery of paintings, and many other useful and liberal institutions. The hospital of the abbaye-aux-dames is one of the best regulated in France. The noble hospital of the bon-sauveur is divided into the asylum for the insane, the dispensary for the sick and wounded, the school for the deaf and dumb, the lyingin-hospital, a boarding school for young ladies, and a free school for 120 destitute girls. The whole is administered by 125 charitable females (soeurs hospitaliers). The streets are less narrow and crooked than is usual in France, and t nouses are mostly of white stone. It ras 12 parish churches, of which the principal are the abbaye-aux-hommes, built by William the Conqueror, who lies buried in it, and notre-dame. The city was formerly forti

fied, but the fortifications are now in ruins. Henry VI of England founded a university here in 1431, C. having been in the possession of the English, of whom it is now a favorite retreat, from 1417 to 1448. Admiral de Coligni captured it for the Protestants in 1562, and, in 1815, it was occupied by the Prussians. Linen, serges, particularly rich lace, with stockings, caps, paper-hangings and oil, are the principal articles of manufacture. A sugar refinery has lately been established, in which a steam-engine is employed. A large fair is held here annually, and an exhibition of the manufactures of the department biennially. Malherbe, De Laplace, Vauquelin, were born in this city or in its vicinity. It is 132 miles N. W. of Paris. Lon. 21′ 38′′ W.; lat. 49° 11′ 12′′ N.

CAERLEON; a small town in England, 26 miles from Bristol, on the Usk, in which the tide rises 30 feet. (See Bristol Channel.) It was the site of the Isca Silurum, the chief Roman station in the country of the Silures. The ruins of baths, temples and a theatre were to be seen here in the 12th century; and Roman coins, statues and sepulchral monuments are yet found. There are also the vestiges of an amphitheatre, which the inhabitants call king Arthur's round table, from a tradition that he instituted the round table in this place. Population, in 1821 1062.

CAERMARTHEN; chief town of Caermarthenshire, South Wales. It is situated on the Towy, the picturesque beauties of the vale of which are seen to great advantage from the celebrated Grongar hill and the ruins of Dynevor castle. The streets are many of them steep and irregular. The river is navigable for vessels of 300 tons burden. In the history of romance, C. is famed as the birthplace of Merlin, and three miles from the town is a spot called Merlin's grove, in which tradition relates that the Lady of the Lake intombed the unhappy magician (Faerie Queen, iii. 3). Merlin's chair, from which he uttered his prophecies, is also shown. Roman roads, coins and sepulchral antiquities are found in the neighborhood. About eight miles from the town there is an immense cairn, 18 feet high and 150 in circuit, covered with turf. The top is hollow, with a stone chest in it, covered with an oval stone nine feet long. Between the Towy and the Cowen there a barrow with a stone chest in it. C. is 212 miles west from London. Population, in 1821, 8906.

CAERNARVON, the principal town of North Wales, stands on the Menai strait, with a good harbor, but difficult of access. It is built in the form of a square, enclosed on three sides with walls. Edward I built it in 1282, and his son, Edward II, first prince of Wales, was born here. C. stands near the site of the ancient Segontium of Antoninus, the Caer Seiont of the Britons. Being formerly a strong hold, it was frequently attacked in the wars between the Welsh and English, and in the civil wars. Population, 5788. Distant

253 miles N. W. from London.

CAERPHILLY, or CAERPHILI; a small market-town in the county of Glamorgan, distinguished for the ruins of one of the most magnificent castles in Great Britain. The date of its foundation is unknown; but, till the time of Henry III, it was called the castle of Senghenydd. The great hall, 70 feet by 30, and the hanging tower, nearly 80 feet high, and inclining about 11 feet from the perpendicular, are remarkable objects. The position of the latter was produced by the steam of a quantity of water which was thrown upon a furnace of melted iron beneath the tower. Distant 158 miles west from London.

CAERWENT; a village of England, supposed to have been the Venta Silurum of Antoninus. The vestiges of a large Roman camp are visible. A mosaic pavement of blue, white, yellow and red was discovered here some years ago. Distant 17 miles N. W. of Bristol.

CAERWYS, a small town of North Wales, is noted for the celebration of the Eisteddfod, or competition of the bards (q. v.). They recited their odes, or performed on the harp, in presence of judges appointed by the native princes. The prize was a small silver harp. Distant 212 miles N. W. from London.

CESAR was the family name of the five first Roman emperors. With Nero the imperial family became extinct (A.D.68), and Cæsar became merely a title of dignity. The emperor, who bore the title of Augustus, appointed his successor, with the title of Cæsar. On medals and monuments we find the title Cæsar preceding the name of the emperor, as, Imp. Cæsar Nerva Trajanus Augustus, and following that of the designated successor, as, Marc. Aurel. Antonin. Cæsar. In the lower Greek empire, a new dignity of Sebastocrator was conferred, and that of Cæsar became the third rank in the state.

CESAR, Caius Julius, a great general, statesman and historian, was born July 10th (Quinctilis), B. C. 100. He was the

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son of the pretor Caius Julius Cæsar, and of Aurelia, a daughter of Aurelius Cotta. From his earliest boyhood, he discovered extraordinary talents. He had a penetrating intellect, a remarkably strong memory, and a lively imagination; was indefatigable in business, and able, as we are told by Pliny, to read, write, hear and dictate, at the same time, from four to seven different letters. When the party of Marius gained the ascendency in Rome, Cinna gave his daughter Cornelia in marriage to C., with the view thereby to establish his own power more firmly. Sylla, when he came to Rome, tried to prevail on him to repudiate her. His refusal provoked the anger of the usurper, who was prevented only by the earnest entreaties of his friends from putting him under proscription. The saying of Sylla, that "he saw in this stripling many a Marius," hastened the departure of C. from Rome. He travelled into the Sabine territory, was seized by the soldiers of Sylla, and was obliged to procure his release by a bribe of two talents. He then proceeded to the court of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. Thence he went to M. Minucius Thermus, the pretor in Asia, who intrusted him with the command of the fleet which was to blockade Mitylene. In the execution of this trust, C. distinguished himself highly, although but 22 years old. He next visited Rhodes, and placed himself under the instruction of Apollonius, to fit himself for speaking at the bar. On the way, he was taken by pirates, and compelled to pay 50 talents for his release. To revenge himself, he fitted out some vessels at Miletus, overtook the pirates, made the greatest part of them prisoners, and had them crucified before Pergamus. He now returned to Rome, and became military tribune, questor and edile. At the same time, he had the address to win the favor of the people by affability, by splendid entertainments and public shows; and, trusting to his popularity, he ventured to erect again the statues and trophies of Marius, who was hated by the senate and the patricians. By means of one of his relations, L. Julius Cæsar, whom he had aided in obtaining the consulship, he caused many of Sylla's followers to be banished. or put to death. In the conspiracy of Catiline he certainly had a secret part. He defended the conspirators, who were arrested, and succeeded in raising a tumult against Cato, who strongly opposed him, so that he was obliged to quit the rostrum, and even his life was endanger.

ed. Cato, however, prevailed, and C. was for a time kept out of the pretorship. But he was soon after chosen pontifex maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther Spain. His creditors refusing to let him depart, Crassus became his bondsman for the enormous sum of 830 talents. It was on his journey to Spain, that he expressed, on seeing a miserable village, the well-known sentiment, that he would rather be first there, than second at Rome." In Spain, he made several conquests, and returned to Rome with money enough to pay off his debts. In order to gain the consulship, he now found it expedient to bring about a reconciliation between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had divided Rome into two parties. He succeeded in his design, and all three agreed to divide the sovereign power between them. This was the first triumvirate in Roman history (B. C. 60.) C. then became consul with M. Calpurnius Bibulus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured the passage of a law, in opposition to the senate and his colleague, to distribute certain lands among the poor citizens. This brought him into the highest favor with the people. With Pompey he formed a still more intimate connexion by giving him his daughter Julia in marriage, and gained the favor of the equestrian order by remitting a third part of their taxes. In vain did the heads of the patriotic party, Cicero and Cato, raise their voices against the triumvirate: they only drew upon themselves their vengeance. When the year of his consulship had expired, C. obtained the government of Gaul for five years, with the command of four legions. After his marriage with the accomplished Calpurnia, the daughter of one of the new consuls, Calpurnius Piso, he repaired to Gaul, compelled the Helvetians, who had invaded that province, to retreat to their native country, subdued Ariovistus, who, at the head of a German tribe, intended to settle in the country of the Edui, and conquered the Belgians. In nine years, he reduced all Gaul, crossed the Rhine twice (B. C. 55 and 53), and twice passed over to Britain, defeated the gallant natives of this island in several battles, and compelled them to give him hostages. The senate had continued his government in Gaul for another period of five years, while Pompey was to have the command of Spain, and Crassus that of Syria, Egypt and Macedonia for five years also. But the death of Crassus, in

his campaign against the Parthians, dissolved the triumvirate; and the death of Julia, which took place about the same time, cooled the friendship between C. and Pompey. Meanwhile the power and authority of Pompey were constantly increasing. C., too, strove to strengthen and enlarge his own party in the capital by enormous bribes. He made Gaul a Roman province, and governed the conquered lands with policy and kindness. Pompey, on the other hand, promoted C.'s enemies to the consulship, and persuaded the senate to pass a decree, by which C. was to leave his army, and resign his government of the province. He declared himself ready to obey, if Pompey would do the same. Hereupon the senate ordered that C. should resign his offices and command within a certain time, or be proclaimed an enemy to the state, and appointed Pompey general of the army of the republic. Upon this, C. urged his soldiers to defend the honor of their leader, passed the Rubicon (49 B. C.), and made himself master of Italy without striking a blow, as Pompey, destitute of troops to meet him, had left the city with the consuls, senators and magistrates. C. then levied an army with the treasures of the state, and hastened into Spain, which he reduced to submission without coming to a pitched battle with Pompey's generals. He next conquered Marseilles, and returned to Rome, where he was appointed dictator by the pretor, M. Æmilius Lepidus. At the same time, he was chosen consul for the following year by the people. In the meanwhile, Pompey had collected an army in the east, and his rival hastened to Epirus with five legions by land. But when the vessels which were intended to transport the rest of his troops had been captured by Pompey's fleet, C. proposed an accommodation, which, however, was refused. while C. received the expected reënforcements, and challenged his antagonist to battle. Pompey declined coming to an engagement, but, at last, being surrounded in his camp, was forced to take a decisive step, in order to break through the enemy's line. This measure was successful, and C. retreated to Pharsalia, where, in a bloody but decisive engagement (48 B. C.), he gained the victory. Pompey fled to Asia, and then to Egypt, to raise a new army. As his party was only weakened, but not destroyed, C. hastened after him, passed over the Hellespont, where Cassius surrendered to him with his fleet, and then went to Egypt. Here he received

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intelligence of the murder of Pompey. He shed tears at the tragical end of his rival, gave his body an honorable burial, and loaded his followers with favors, by which many of them were won to embrace his cause. Being detained by contrary winds, he made use of the time to compose the differences between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra (q. v.). In Rome, the senate and the people strove eagerly to gain the favor of the victor. They appointed him consul for five years, dictator for a year, and tribune of the people for life. Pharnaces, king of Pontus, a son of Mithridates the Great, having attempted to recover the territories of his father in Asia, C. marched against him, pardoned king Dejotarus, an adherent of Pompey, on his way, and finished the war so speedily, that he announced his success to his friends in the famous words Veni, vidi, vici. Returning to Rome, he granted an amnesty to all the followers of Pompey, and gained, by his clemency, the universal love of the people. When his dictatorship had expired, he caused himself to be chosen consul again, and, without changing the ancient forms of government, ruled with almost unlimited power. In Africa, however, the friends of the republic had gathered under the standard of Cato and other generals. C. passed over with an army, and fought several battles with various success, till the victory at Thapsus over Scipio Metellus decided the contest in his favor. Cato, who was in Utica, stabbed himself, and the city surrendered to the conqueror. C. then made Mauritania and Numidia Roman provinces, and gave orders for the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth, which was accomplished in a year. In Rome, he was received with the most striking marks of honor. The term of his dictatorship was prolonged to 10 years, the of fice of censor conferred on him alone; his person was declared inviolable, and his statue placed by that of Jupiter in the capitol. In a speech to the people on this occasion, he declared his resolution to use his power for the good of the state; and put an end to the apprehensions, which some still entertained, by the pardon of Marcellus, one of his most open and bitter enemies. He soon after celebrated the four triumphs which had been decreed him over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, all in one month, and among the most magnificent ever witnessed in Rome. He now passed many useful laws, and invited the learned men of foreign countries to Rome. Amongst

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other things, he undertook the reformation of the calendar (q. v.). During these peaceful occupations, the sons of Pompey had collected new forces in Spain, so that C. took the field in person against them. Corduba was captured after a most obstinate resistance; and, soon after, the parties came to a general engagement at Munda. A fortunate accident decided the battle in favor of C., after victory had been for a whole day doubtful. In seven months, Spain was conquered, and C. entered Rome in triumph. He was now made perpetual dictator, and received the title of imperator, with full powers of sovereignty. He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate his enemies by clemency, and to heap honors upon his friends. The number of senators he increased from 300 to 900. But this degradation of the senate offended the Romans, and their displeasure was increased by the arrogance with which he conducted towards that order. On one occasion, as he was sitting in the rostrum, in his chair of gold, Mark Antony offered him a royal diadem. He refused it, however, and his refusal drew shouts of applause from the people. The next morning, his statues were decked with diadems. The tribunes of the people, who had them taken off, and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, were deposed from their office by C. This was the occasion of an animosity, which ended in a conspiracy, of which Caius Cassius was the prime mover. C., having no suspicion of the danger which threatened him, was forming new projects. He resolved to subdue the Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia, from the Caucasus to Germany and Gaul. C.'s friends gave out, that, according to the Sibylline books, the Parthians could be conquered only by a king, and, therefore, proposed that C. should retain the title of dictator with regard to Italy, but should be saluted with that of king in all the conquered countries. For this purpose, a meeting of the senate was appointed for the 15th of March; and this was the day fixed on by the conspirators for the execution of the plot. A soothsayer warned C. of his danger; and his wife, disturbed by a frightful dream, conjured him not to go to the senate-house. His doubts, however, were overcome by Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, and he proceeded to the capitol. On his way thither, a billet was handed him, giving him information of the conspiracy; but, in the crowd, he put it by without reading it. The con spirators had concerted, that Metellus

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Cimper should entreat a pardon for his brother, and, if C. should refuse, he was to tear the mantle from his shoulders, which was to be the signal for their rushing upon him with their daggers. All was done as they had planned. Casca's dagger first pierced him in the neck. Scarcely had C. turned, and uttered the words "Accursed Casca, what doest thou?" when the conspirators rushed upon him from all sides. He defended himself, however, undauntedly. But, when he descried Brutus among the conspirators, he exclaimed, " And thou, too, my son ?" covered his face with his mantle, and fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot of Pompey's statue. Thus died this remarkable man, the best who ever aspired to sovereignty in Rome, the victor in 500 battles, and the conqueror of a thousand cities, B. C. 44, 15th of March, in the 56th year of his age.-Of C.'s writings, we have his history of his wars with the Gauls and with Pompey, written in a simple, noble style. The most esteemed editions are those of Clarke (London, 1712, fol.), Grævius (Leyden, 1713, 2 vols.), and Oudendorp (Leyden, 1737, 2 vols. 4to.) One of the best modern small editions is that of Oberlin (Leipsic, 1805). CESAREA; the ancient name of many cities.-1. C. Philippi, or Paneas, built by Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great.-2. C. Stratonis, on the shores of the Mediterranean, about 75 miles north-west from Jerusalem. Herod the Great enlarged it, and it became the metropolis of Palestine, and the seat of the Roman proconsul. (Joseph. Arch. 15, 9, 6.) It is the place where Herod Agrippa was smitten by the angel (Acts xii. 20 23), where Cornelius the centurion resided (x.), and St. Paul was imprisoned two years (xxiii.-xxv). It is now, according to Clarke, in utter desolation. 3. The capital of Cappadocia, and now called Kaisarich. It was once supposed to contain 400,000 inhabitants. Lucas (2d Voyage, xviii.) says that all the mountains in the environs are perforated with grottoes, which served as summer residences, and that there are 200,000 little pyramids in the vicinity. It has now 25,000 inhabitants, and considerable trade in cotton.-There were many other towns of this name.

wrists, intended for defence. It was afterwards enlarged, so as to reach to the elbow, and loaded with metal, to increase the weight of the blow. The combat with the cæstus was not more dangerous than a common English boxing-match. Theocritus (Idyll. 22) has described one of these combats.

CASURA, in Latin verse; the separation of the last syllable of any word from those which preceded it, and the carrying it forward into another foot. It always renders the syllable on which it falls long, and is accompanied by a slight pause, hence called the casural pause, as in the following line :

Ille latus niveum molli fultus hyacintho.

In English poetry, it is equivalent to a pause. (See Versification.)

CAF; a mountain, which, if we believe the Mohammedans, environs the whole earth, which is thus set within it like a finger in a ring. Its foundation is the stone Sakhral, one grain of which enables its possessor to work miracles. The agitation of this stone, which is an emerald, whose reflection gives the sky its tints, is the cause of earthquakes. The Dives, or giants, and the Peri, or fairies, dwell in it. CAFÉ. (See Coffee-Houses.)

On

CAFFA; one of the principal ports of the Crimea, formerly a large and rich city, now much reduced. On the south stood the Genoese town, of which ruined walls and massive magazines remain. some neighboring heights was the Armenian town, and near this the Tartar city, its magnificent baths and mosques falling into decay. It was called, by the Tartars, Little Constantinople; but, from the time of its capture by the Turks, in 1475, it began to decline. When Clarke visited it, in 1800, its population was diminished to 50 families. In 1783, it was ceded to Russia, and called Feodosia, from its ancient name, Theodosia.

CAFFA, strait of, anciently the Cimme rian Bosphorus, discharges the turbid wa ters of the sea of Azoph (Palus Mœotis) into the Black sea. It is about 15 leagues in length and 3 in breadth.

CAFFARELLI. (See Majorano.)

CAFFARELLI DÙ FALGA. Among five brothers of this name, all of whom have distinguished themselves in different departments of politics and literature, the best known are,-1. Louis Marie Joseph Maximilian, born in 1756. He was killed in 1799, before St. Jean d'Acre, while general of division. His works, which gained him a place in the national insti