of 3651 days exceeds the true by about 11 minutes; so that, for every such Julian year, the equinox receded 11 minutes, or a day in about 130 years. In consequence of this, in the 16th century, the vernal equinox had changed its place in the calendar from the 21st to the 10th; i. e., it really took place on the 10th instead of the 21st, on which it was placed in the calendar. Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1577, the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and, in 1582, Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the new style, as the other was now called the old style. The amendment consisted in this:-10 days were dropped after the 4th of Oct., 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the old style, was to have been a leap year, was now to be a common year, the 4th excepted; i. e., 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900, to be of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar, the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. Later observations of Zach, Lalande and Delambre fix the average length of the tropical year at about 27 seconds less; but it is unnecessary to direct the attention of the reader to the error arising from this difference, as it will amount to a day only in the space of 3000 years. Notwithstanding the above improvement, the Protestants retained the Julian calendar till 1700, when they also adopted the new style, with this difference, that they assigned the feast of Easter to the day of the first full moon after the astronomical equinox. But this arrangement produced new variations. In 1724 and 1744, the Easter of the Catholics was eight days later than that of the Protestants. On this account, the Gregorian calendar was finally adopted, 1777, in Germany, under the name of the general calendar of the empire, or, as it is now called, the reformed calendar, in order that the Catholics and Protestants might celebrate Easter, and, consequently, all the movable feasts, at the same time. England introduced the new style in 1752, and Sweden in 1753. Russia only re

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tains the old style, which now differs 12 days from the new.days from the new.-In France, during the revolution, a new calendar was introduced by a decree of the national convention, Nov. 24, 1793. The time from which the new reckoning was to commence was the autumnal equinox of 1792, which fell upon the 22d of Sept., at 18 minutes and 30 seconds after 9 A. M., Paris time. This day was select ed as that on which the first decree of the new republic had been promulgated. The year was made to consist of 12 months of 30 days each, and, to complete the full number of days, 5 jours complementaires were added to the end of it, in common years, and 6 in leap years. Each period of 4 years, terminating with a leap year, was called a franciade. Instead of weeks, each month was divided into 3 parts, called decades, consisting of 10 days each; the other divisions being also accommodated to the decimal system. The names of the months were so chosen as to indicate, by their etymology, the time of year to which they belonged. They were as follows:--Autumn, from the 22d Sept. to the 22d Dec.; Vendémiaire, vintage month (Oct.); Brumaire, foggy month (Nov.); Frimaire, sleet month (Dec.) Winter, from 22d Dec. to 22d March; Nivôse, snowy month (Jan.); Ventôse, windy month (Feb.); Pluviose, rainy month (March):-Spring, from 22d March to 22d June'; Germinal, bud month (April); Floréal, flower month (May); Prairial, meadow month (June)::-Summer, from 22d June to 22d Sept.; Messidor, harvest month (July); Thermidor, hot month (Aug.); Fructidor, fruit month (Sept.).—The 10 days of each decade were called, 1. Primidi, 2. Duodi, 3. Tridi, 4. Quartidi, 5. Quintidi, 6. Sextidi, 7. Septidi, 8. Octidi, 9. Nonidi, 10. Decadi (the Sabbath). Besides this, each day in the year had its particular name, appropriate to the time when it occurred; e. g., the 7th of vintage month, Vendémiaire, was named carottes (carrots). This calendar was abolished, at the command of Napo leon, by a decree of the senate, 9th Sept., 1805, and the common Christian or Gregorian calendar introduced throughout the French empire. (For a pretty full historical account of this subject, see Busch's Handbuch der Erfindungen, vol. vii. p. 152 et seq.; also Gebelin's Histoire du Calendrier. There are also astronomical calendars, to which the Astronomical Year-Book of professor Bode belongs, and of which 50 vols. had appeared in 1822. It is still continued. Of

the same class are the Paris Connoissance des Temps, and the London Nautical Almanac. * See Almanac and Chronology.) CALENDER. Different fabrics, before they leave the hands of the manufacturer, are subjected to certain processes, the object of which is to make them smooth and glossy, to glaze them, to water them, or give them a wavy appearance. This is done, in general, by pressing the fabric between wooden or metallic cylinders, whence the machine is called a calender, and the workman a calender or calenderer.

CALENDERS; a sect of dervises in Turkey and Persia. They are not very strict in their morals, nor in very high esteem among the Mohammedans. They preach in the market-places, and live upon alms. Their name is derived from their founder. (See Dervise.)

CALENDS, with the Romans, the first days of the month; so called because the pontifex maximus then proclaimed (calavit) whether the nones would be on the 5th or the 7th. This was the custom until the year 450 U. C., when the fasti calendares, or calendar (q. v.), were affixed to the wall of public places. The Greeks did not make use of calends; whence the proverbial expression ad Græcas calendas (on the Greek calends), meaning never. The calends of January were more solemn than the others, and were consecrated to Janus and Juno. On this day, the magistrates entered on their offices, and friends interchanged presents. On the calends, debtors were obliged to pay the interest of their debts; hence tristes calendæ (Hor. Serm. 1 Sat. 3. v. 87). The book of accounts was called Calendarium. -Calends, in ecclesiastical history, denotes conferences, anciently held by the clergy of each deanery on the first of each month, concerning their duty and conduct. (Du Cange, in voce.)

CALENTURE; a violent fever, incident to persons in hot climates, especially to such as are natives of cooler climates. It is attended with delirium; and the patient imagines the sea to be a green field, in which he is tempted to walk by the coolness and freshness of its appearance. This is, at least, the poetical explanation of the matter. The fact seems to be, that the intense inflammation of the fever prompts the patient to plunge into cold water to relieve his sufferings.

CALEPIN (French); a lexicon. The name is derived from Calepino, a famous grammarian and lexicographer of the 15th century, who was the author of a poly

glot dictionary, which has passed through numerous editions, and been enlarged by different editors. The most complete edition is that of Bâle, 1590, fol., in 11 languages. This work was usually called the Calepin, and such was its celebrity, that the name became a common appellation for a learned lexicon.

CALIBER; the interior diameter of the bore of any piece of ordnance, or the diameter of a shot or shell.-Caliber or calliper compasses are a sort of compasses with arched legs, used in the artillery practice, to take the diameter of any round body, particularly of shot or shells, the bore of ordnance, &c. The instrument consists of two thin pieces of brass, joined by a rivet, so as to move quite round each other. It contains a number of tables, rules, &c., connected with the artillery practice.

CALICO; a cotton cloth, which derives its name from Calicut, a city of India, from which it was first brought. In England, white or unprinted cotton cloth is called calico. In the U. States, printed cloth only is called by that name. Calico printing is a combination of the arts of engraving and dyeing, and is used to produce, upon woven fabrics, chiefly of cotton, a variety of ornamental combinations, both of figure and color. In this process, the whole fabric is immersed in the dyeing liquid; but it is previously prepared in such a manner, that the dye adheres only to the parts intended for the figure, while it leaves the remaining parts unaltered. In calico-printing, adjective colors are most frequently employed. The cloth is prepared by bleaching, and other processes, which dispose it to receive the color. It is then printed with the mordant, in a manner similar to that of copperplateprinting, except that the figure is engraved upon a cylinder instead of a plate. The cylinder, in one part of its revolution, becomes charged with the mordant, mixed to a proper consistence with starch. The superfluous part of the mordant is then scraped off by a straight steel edge, in contact with which the cylinder revolves, leaving only that part which remains in the lines of the figure. The cloth then passes in forcible contact with the other side of the cylinder, and receives from it a complete impression of the figure in the pale color of the mordant. The cloth is then passed through the coloring-bath, in which the parts previously printed become dyed with the intended color. When it is afterwards exposed and washed, the color disappears

from those parts which are not impregnated with the mordant, but remains permanently fixed to the rest. When addiWhen additional colors are required, they are printed over the rest, with different mordants, suited to the color intended to be produced. This secondary printing is generally performed with blocks, engraved in the manner of wood-cuts, and applied by hand to the successive parts of the piece.

CALICUT; a city of Hindostan, formerly capital of the kingdom of C., which was ceded to the British in 1792. From this port the first vessel was freighted with Indian commodities for Europe, by Vasco da Gama, in 1498. The ancient city, however, is now buried beneath the sea; and, at low tides, the tops of temples and minarets are discernible. The present town stands on a low shore, and has considerable trade. It was taken and destroyed by Tippoo Saib, but was rebuilt when the country fell into the hands of the English. Cardamoms, teak, sandalwood, pepper and wax are the principal exports. It contains 5000 houses. Lat. 11° 15′ N.; lon. 75° 50′ E. The rajah of the C. district, or the Tamuri rajah, called Zamorin by the Europeans, is a Bramin, who pretends to be superior to the other Bramins, and inferior only to the gods. The males of the family are called Tamburans, and the females Tamburetties. These ladies are married at the age of 10, but it would be scandalous for them to have any intercourse with their husbands. The Namburi Bramins, or the Nairs, are the fathers of their children, who are all, of course, in the dilemma described by Telemachus.

CALIF and CALIFATE. (See Caliph.) CALIFORNIA, Gulf of; a gulf on the west coast of North America, in Mexico, lying on the east side of the peninsula of California, extending from S. S. E. to N. N. W., between lat. 22° 40′ and 34° N. It is about 800 miles long, and, through most of its length, is less than 100 miles wide. It receives the river Colorado at its northern extremity. It contains numerous islands and shoals, and is of difficult navigation.

CALIFORNIA, New; a province of Mexico, on the coast of the N. Pacific ocean, called, by captain Vancouver, New Albion. It lies north of the peninsula, which is called Old California, and is 600 miles long, and only 30 broad. Square leagues, 2,125. Montery is the capital. There is not any country in the world which more abounds in fish and game of every de

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scription. Hares, rabbits and stags are very common here; seals and otters are also found in prodigious numbers. To the northward, and during the winter, the inhabitants kill a very great number of foxes, bears, wolves and wildcats. The land possesses, also, great fertility; farinaceous roots and seeds of all kinds abundantly prosper here. The crops of maize, barley, corn and peas cannot be equalled but by those of Chili. European cultivators can have no conception of a similar fertility. The medium produce of corn is from 70 to 80 for 1; the extremes, 60 and 100. The population, in 1802, including Indians who had settled and begun to cultivate fields, was 15,562.

CALIFORNIA, Old; a province of Mexico, comprising a peninsula in the Pacific ocean, united, on the north, to the continent of North America, from which the other part is separated by a narrow sea, called the gulf of California, and bounded S. and W. by the Pacific ocean; near 900 miles in length, and, in different places, 30, 60, 90, and 120 miles wide. A chain of mountains extends through the peninsula, of which the greatest height is from 4500 to 4900 feet above the sea. This peninsula is said to have been discovered by sir Francis Drake, and by him called New Albion; and the gulf of California has been sometimes called the Vermilion sea, or Purple sea, or Red sea. In a peninsula of so great an extent, which reaches nearly from 23° to 34° N. lat., the soil and climate must naturally be found to vary Some parts are continually covered with flowers, but the greater part is wild, rug ged and barren, overrun with rocks and sand, and destitute of water. From cape St. Lucas to the Colorado, nearly 200 leagues, only two streams run into the gulf of California. Population, in 1803, 9000. The principal places are Santa Maria, St. Ignatio, St. Isidoro, Loreto, St. Estevan, St. Xavier, St. Yago, Rosalio, St. Juan Guadalupe and St. Joseph.

CALIGULA, Caius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, was born, A. D. 12, in the camp, probably in Germany, and brought up among the legions. Here he received, from the soldiers, the surname of C., on account of his wearing the caliga, a kind of little boots in use among them. He understood so well how to insinuate himself into the good graces of Tiberius, that he not only escaped the cruel fate of his parents and brothers and sisters, but was even loaded with honors. Whether, as some writers inform us, he removed Ti

berius out of the way by slow poison, is uncertain. When the latter was about to die, he appointed, according to Suetonius, C. and the son of Drusus, Tiberius Nero, heirs of the empire. But C., universally beloved for the sake of his father, Germancus, was able, without difficulty, to obtain sole nossession of the throne. Rome received him joyfully, and the distant provinces echoed his welcome. His first actions, also, were just and noble. He interred, in the most honorable manner, the remains of his mother and of his brother Nero, set free all state-prisoners, recalled the banished, and forbade all prosecutions for treason. He conferred on the magistrates free and independent power. Although the will of Tiberius had been declared, by the senate, to be null and void, he fulfilled every article of it, with the exception only of that abovementioned. When he was chosen consul, he took his uncle Claudius as his colleague. Thus he distinguished the first eight months of his reign by many magnanimous actions, when he fell sick. After his recovery, by a most unexpected alteration, he suddenly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants. The most exquisite tortures served him for enjoyments. During his meals, he caused criminals, and even innocent persons, to be stretched on the rack and beheaded the most respectable persons were daily executed. In the madness of his arrogance, he even considered himself a god, and caused the honors to be paid to him which were paid to Apollo, to Mars, and even to Jupiter. He also showed himself in public with the attributes of Venus and of other goddesses. He built a temple to his own divinity. At one time, he wished that the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might be able to cut it off at one blow. He frequently repeated the words of an old poet, Oderint dum metuant. One of his greatest follies was the building of a bridge between Baie and Puteoli (Puzzuoli). He himself consecrated this strange structure with great splendor; and, after he had passed the night following in a revel with his friends, in order to do something extraordinary before his departure, he caused a crowd of persons, without distinction of age, rank and character, to be seized, and thrown into the sea. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, because, as he said, he had conquered nature herself. After this, he made preparations for an expedition against the Germans, passed,

with more than 200,000 men, over the Rhine, but returned after he had travelled a few miles, and that without having seen an enemy. Such was his terror, that, when he came to the river, and found the bridge obstructed by the crowd upon it, he caused himself to be passed over the heads of the soldiers. He then went to Gaul, which he plundered with unexampled rapacity. Not content with the considerable booty thus obtained, he sold all the property of both his sisters, Agrippina and Livilla, whom he banished. He also sold the furniture of the old court, the clothes of Marcus Antoninus, of Augustus, Agrippina, &c. Before he left Gaul, he declared his intention of going to Britain. He collected his army on the coast, embarked in a magnificent galley, but returned when he had hardly left the land, drew up his forces, ordered the signal for battle to be sounded, and commanded the soldiers to fill their pockets and helmets with shells, while he cried out, "This booty, ravished from the sea, is fit for my palace and the capitol !" When he returned to Rome, he was desirous of a triumph on account of his achievements, but contented himself with an ovation. Discontented with the senate, he resolved to destroy the greater part of the members, and the most distinguished men of Rome. This is proved by two books, which were found after his death, wherein the names of the proscribed were noted down, and of which one was entitled Gladius (Sword), and the other Pugillus (Dagger). He became reconciled to the senate again when he found it worthy of him. He supported public brothels and gaming-houses, and received himself the entrance-money of the visitors. His horse, named Incitatus, was his favorite. This animal had a house and a servant, and was fed from marble and gold. C. had caused him to be admitted into the college of his priests, and was desirous of making him a consul also. He even had the intention of destroying the poems of Homer, and was on the point of removing the works and images of Virgil and Livy from all libraries: those of the former, because he was destitute of genius and learning; those of the latter, because he was not to be depended upon as a historian. C.'s morals were, from his youth upward, corrupt; he had committed incest with all his sisters. After he had married and repudiated several wives, Cæsonia retained a permanent hold on his affections. number of conspirators, at the head of

A

whom were Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, both tribunes of the pretorian cohorts, murdered him in the 29th year of his life, and the fourth of his tyrannical reign (from A. D. 37 to 41).

ČALIPH (i. e., vicegerent) is the name assumed by the successors of Mohammed, in the government of the faithful and in the high priesthood. Caliphate is, therefore, the name given, by historians, to the empire of these princes which the Arabs founded in Asia, and, impelled by religious enthusiasm, enlarged, within a few centuries, to a dominion far superior in extent to the Roman empire. Mohammed (q. v.), in the character of the prophet of God, made himself the spiritual and temporal ruler of his people. After the death of the prophet, the election of a successor occasioned considerable excitement. Abdallah Ebn Abu Koafas, called Abubeker, i. e., father of the virgin (because his daughter Ayesha was the only one of the wives of Mohammed, whom he had married when a virgin), obtained the victory over Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, and became the first caliph, A. D. 632 (year of the Hegira 11). Victorious over all enemies, by the aid of his general, the brave Caled, he began, as the Koran directs, to spread the doctrines of Mohammed by arms among the neighboring nations. With the watch-word conversion or tribute, a numerous army, consisting entirely of volunteers, inspired with zeal for the holy war, penetrated first into Syria. Conquerors in the first battle, they were subsequently several times defeated by the Greeks; but, having once acquired a strong footing in the country by the treacherous surrender of Bosra, they undertook, under Caled, the siege of Damascus, and, having repulsed two large armies, sent by the emperor Heraclius to the relief of the city, they obtained possession of it by a capitulation (A. D. 633, of the Hegira 12), the terms of which were perfidiously broken, Caled pursuing and slaughtering the retreating Christians. Abubeker died after he had filled the place of the prophet two years and four months. By his will, Omar, another father-in-law of the prophet, became second caliph. He intrusted the command of the army of the faithful to the humane Obeidah, instead of Caled, and completed, by his means, though not without a brave resistance on the part of the Greeks, the subjugation of Syria (A. D. 638, of the Hegira 17). Jerusalem having been compelled to surrender (A. D. 636, Heg. 15), Ómar proceeded thither in person to fix the terms of capit

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ulation, which have subsequently served as a model in settling the relations of the Moslems to the subject Christians. These terms were carefully observed by the conscientious caliph. Equally successful was another general, Amrou, in Egypt, which was subjected to the caliphate in two years (640). Omar was the first who bore the appellation of emir al moumenin (prince of the faithful)—a title inherited by all succeeding caliphs, and perverted into miramolin by the ignorant Europeans. After the murder of Omar by a revengeful slave (A. D. 643, Heg. 23), a council, appointed by him on his death-bed, chose Osman, or Othman, son-in-law of the prophet, passing over Ali. Under him, the empire of the Arabs soon attained a wonderful magnitude. In the East, their arms spread the doctrines of the Koran through Persia. At the same time, they advanced along the northern coast of Africa, as far as Ceuta. Cyprus, too (A. D. 647), and Rhodes (A. D. 654) were conquered; but the former was lost again two years after. Thus Alexandria and all Egypt were a second time, though not without difficulty, torn from the Greeks, who had regained their power there by the aid of the natives. These reverses were caused by the measures of Othman, who, far inferior to Omar in wisdom, intrusted the provinces, not to the most capable, but to his favorites. The dissatisfaction thus excited occasioned a general insurrection in the year 654 (Heg. 34), which terminated in his death. Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet by Fatima, became the fourth caliph, by the choice of the people of Medina, and is regarded as the first legitimate possessor of the dignity, by a numerous sect of Mohammedans, which gives him and his son Hassan almost equal honor with the prophet. This belief prevails among the Persians; whence arises the hatred in which they are held by the Turks. Instead of being able to continue the conquests of his predecessors, Ali always had to contend with domestic enemies. Among these was Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, called the mother of the faithful; also Tellah, Zobeir, and especially the powerful Moawiyah, governor of Syria, who all laid claim to the government. These were able to create suspicion, and spread the report that Ali had instigated the murder of Othman. In vain did he endeavor to repress the machinations of his enemies, by intrust ing the government of the provinces to his friends. Nowhere were the new governors received. The discontented