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Catharine II. He now employed himself in refuting the charges which were brought against him. In his petition addressed to the king about the end of 1787, he takes a review of all his ministerial operations, and endeavors to prove that he had always for his object the improvement of the finances. The archbishop of Toulouse, his successor, had informed him of the personal displeasure of the king; the parliaments of Grenoble, Toulouse, Besançon, had made him the object of public animadversion; the parliament of Paris had come forward formally against him. C. defended himself against all these attacks. He besought the king to declare, that he had constantly acted by his express command or with his consent, and offered, in case the king should be silent, to justify himself before the tribunal of peers, before which he had been accused. To all the charges brought against him, his friends opposed this fact, which is certainly true, that he retired from the ministry poor. In a letter of C. to the king, Feb. 9, 1789, containing political reflections, and principally directed against Necker, he manifested the intention of offering himself a candidate for the states-general. He actually made his appearance in the electoral assembly of the nobility of Bailleul, but returned to London without effecting his purpose, where he employed himself in writing on the state of affairs in France. The revolution had, in the mean time, begun. C. took part in it with a zeal which seemed to exceed his powers. His negotiations, his journeys to Germany, Italy and Russia, his perseverance, his attachment to their cause, made him invaluable to the party which he served. In order to assist his unfortunate party with the pen, he wrote his Tableau de l'Europe en Novembre, 1795, remarkable on account of its warmth, and its faithful delineation of events. From that time he lived in London, principally occupied with the fine arts, which he had always cultivated with taste. In 1802, he returned to Paris, where he died in October of the same year. Such was the career of a minister who gave the first impulse to the French revolution. He possessed, in a high degree, the qualities requisite to a great statesman-an accurate acquaintance with details, together with comprehensive views, and the power of conceiving extensive projects. But, if wisdom which matures the conceptions, if a prophetic glance which foresees all the impediments, if consistency and a spirit of method which

provides for the success of the execution, are essential to a statesman, then C. can lay no claim to that title. A knowledge of human nature was wanting in his character. His morals were far from being strict. His works, among which his speeches and memorials to the notables deserve the first place, are valuable contributions to the history of financial administration.

CALORIC is the name given, in chemistry, to that agent which produces the phenomena of heat and combustion. It is hypothetically regarded as a subtile fluid, the particles of which repel one another, and are attracted by all other substances. It is imponderable, and, by its distribution, in various proportions, among the particles of matter, gives rise to the three general forms of gas, liquids and solids. The particles of water, by losing caloric, have their cohesion so much increased, that they assume the solid form of ice; by adding caloric, they again become fluid; and by a still further addition, they are converted into vapor.Caloric exists in two different states-free or uncombined, and in a state of combination. In the former condition, it creates the sensation of heat, and produces expansion in other bodies. The power which any body has of exciting the sensation of heat, and occasioning expansion, is understood by the expression of its temperature. This is supposed to vary with the quantity of free caloric in a given quantity of matter; a high tempera ture being ascribed to the presence of a large quantity of free caloric, and a low temperature to that of a small quantity. We are ignorant, however, of the extremes of temperature, and may compare it to a chain, of which a few of the middle links, only, are exposed to our observation, while its extremities are concealed from our view.-The expansion of bodies is one of the most universal effects of an increase of temperature. This increase in bulk, however, is not the same in all bodies. The same increase of temperature causes liquids to expand more than solids, and aériform bodies much more than either. On this principle are constructed the various instruments for measuring temperature; since the degree of expansion produced by caloric bears a sufficient proportion to its quantity to afford us the means of ascertaining it with tolerable accuracy. Our senses, it is obvious, are quite inadequate to afford us this information; for we compare ou sensations of heat, not with any fixed or

uniform standard, but with those sensations which we have had immediately previous. Hence, the same portion of water will feel warm to a hand removed from contact with snow, and cold to another hand which has been heated before the fire. To convey precise notions of temperature, therefore, we are obliged to describe the degree of expansion produced in some one body which has been previously agreed upon as a standard of comparison. The standard most generally adopted is quicksilver, which is contained in a glass ball, terminating a long, narrow tube. This instrument is called a thermometer. If quicksilver, or, indeed, any other substance except the gases, suffered equal expansion by equal increments of the calorific power, then this instrument would be perfect; but the same increase of bulk is not effected in the same liquid or solid, at all temperatures, by adding similar quantities of heat; for bodies expand, by equal increments of caloric, more in high than in low temperatures, because the force opposing expansion is diminished by the interposition of caloric between the particles of bodies; and, therefore, when equal quantities of caloric are added in succession, the last portions meet with less resistance to their expansive force than the first. In gases, on the contrary, which are destitute of cohesion, equal increments of heat appear to be attended with equal augmentations of bulk.-The tendency to an equilibrium is a characteristic of free caloric. Any number of different bodies, unequally heated, when exposed, in an apartment, to the same temperature, gradually arrive to an equality of temperature. It is in obedience to this law, that we experience the sensations of heat and cold when we touch bodies which are warmer or colder than ourselves. There exists much diversity in the rapidity with which different substances abstract caloric when in contact with a body in which it is accumulated. Common air and gases abstract it but tardily, while wood, stones and metals acquire it more rapidly. According to their power of conducting it off under these circumstances, bodies are divided into conductors and non-conductors of caloric; and, in general, the power of conduction varies with the densities of bodies. But this tendency of caloric to an equilibrium is not established solely by the agency of intermediate bodies or communication. A part of it moves through the atmosphere, like light, in right lines, and with

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immeasurable velocity, and has, therefore, been called radiant caloric. The comparative quantities lost by radiation and by conduction may be approximated by observing what time it takes to cool any body through the same number of degrees in air and in vacuo. Thus doctor Franklin imagined he had ascertained that a body, which requires five minutes to cool in vacuo, will cool in air, through the same number of degrees, in two minutes. Count Rumford's experiments, with a Torricellian vacuum, give the proportions of five to three.-Radiant caloric passes only through transparent media, or free space. When, in its passage, its rays impinge upon the surface of a solid or a liquid substance, they are either reflected from it, and thus receive a new direction, or they lose their radiant form altogether, and are absorbed. In the latter case, the temperature of the receiving substance is increased; in the former, it is unchanged. The nature of the surface of a body has been found to influence powerfully both the radiation and absorption of caloric. The energy of calorific emanation from a cubical tin vessel, coated with different substances, and containing warm water (as determined by the differential thermometer of Leslie), gave, with a covering of

Tin-plate, gold, silver or copper, 12 Similar results were obtained simply by noting the rates of cooling in vessels of similar shapes and capacities with various surfaces. Useful lessons have been derived from these discoveries. Tea and coffee-pots, which are intended to retain their heat, are made of bright and polished metals; and steam-pipes, intended to convey heat to distant apartments, are kept bright in their course, but darkened where they reach their destination. The power of different surfaces to absorb ca loric was found, by coating one of the bulbs of the differential thermometer successively with different substances, and presenting it to an uniformly heated substance, to follow the same order as the radiating or projecting quality.—With regard to combined caloric, it has been shown that solids, during liquefaction, imbibe a quantity of caloric, which ceases to be obvious, both to our senses and to the thermometer. The same is also true of solids and liquids in their conversion

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into vapors or gases; a portion of caloric, which is essential to the elasticity of the new product, ceases to become apparent. Whenever this effect takes place, cold is said to be produced; by which we are only to understand the passage of caloric from a free to a latent form. The reverse of these phenomena has also been satisfactorily established; viz. when the density of bodies is increased, either by chemical or mechanical means, caloric is evolved. For example, a high temperature is produced by mingling cold sulphuric acid and water; metals become intensely heated by the augmentation of their density through hammering; liquids, by becoming solids, or gases by conversion into liquids, also evolve caloric. A pound of water, condensed from steam, will render 100 pounds of water at 50° warmer by 11°; whereas, a pound of boiling water will produce the same rise of temperature in no more than about 13:12 pounds; and, since steam and boiling water affect the thermometer in the same manner, this effect can be produced only from the existence of a much greater quantity of caloric in the former than in the latter. The sources of caloric are six; viz. the sun's rays, combustion, percussion, friction, the mixture of different substances, and electricity.

CALORIMETER; an instrument to measure the capacity of a body for caloric, or its specific caloric. The thermometer (q. v.) measures merely the variations of temperature, or sensible heat. The body in the calorimeter is placed in the innermost of three concentric vessels, the two outer ones containing ice; the quantity of water produced by the cooling of the body a given number of degrees, determines its specific caloric. This instrument was inThis instrument was invented by Lavoisier and Laplace. In the C. invented by Rumford, water is used; the capacity of the body is determined by the number of degrees which the temperature of the water is raised, in cooling the body a given number of degrees.

CALORIMOTOR. (See Galvanic Battery.) CALOTTISTS, or the RÉGIMENT DE LA CALOTTE; a society which sprung up at Paris, in the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, and formed a regiment under the name La Calotte, signifying a flat cap of a peculiar shape, which was the symbol of the society. All were admitted whose ridiculous behavior, odd character, foolish opinions, &c., had exposed them to public criticism. They had a singular coat of arms, on which was the sceptre of Momus, with bells, apes, rattles, &c.: on their

principal standard were the words "Pαvet Momus, luna influit." Every one who made himself particularly ridiculous received letters-patent, and those who were most angry were most laughed at. On the death of Torsac, the colonel of the Calottists, the éloge (a spirited satire on the academical style), which the Calottists pronounced on this occasion, was suppressed. Aimon, colonel of the guards, hastened to marshal Villars with their complaints, and concluded with the words, "My lord, since the death of Alexander and Cæsar, the Calottists have not had any protector besides you," and the order was retracted. They became, however, too bold, attacked the ministers, and even foreign kings; and the regiment was, in consequence, dissolved. Of a similar character is the Academy of Fools, which, for many years, has existed in Duisburg. Some act of folly is necessary to procure a man admission as a member.

CALOYERS; Greek monks, who chiefly reside on mount Athos, and lead a very solitary and austere life, eating no meat, and observing the fasts of the Greek church very rigidly. They do not even eat bread, unless they have earned it. During their 7 weeks of Lent, they pass the greatest part of the night in weeping and lamentations for their own sins and for those of others. The Turks sometimes call their dervishes by this name.

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CALPE. (See Abyla and Gibraltar.) CALPRENÉDE, Gauthier de Costes de la, born in Tolgou, in Gascony, died at Paris in 1663, in the office of royal chamberlain. He was one of the authors who, in the 17th century, brought into fashion a new kind of voluminous and long-spun romances of chivalry. Events from the Greek and Roman history were treated in the spirit and manner of the old romances of chivalry. C. wrote Cassandra, in 10 vols., Cleopatra, in 12 vols., Pharamond, in 7, besides some tragedies. His trage dies obtained little reputation by the side of those of Corneille, but his romances were highly celebrated, and are, certainly, the best of their kind. He is not destitute of poetical imagination, and his characters are often dignified and well drawn, though his Artaban has become a proverbial name for exaggeration. He wrote with great rapidity. His plots, however, are constructed with care, and his stories, long as they are, are not deficient in keeping. His lady has surpassed him in boldness of romantic narration in Les Nouvelles de la Princesse Alcidiane.

CALPURNIUS, Titus Julius, a native o

Sicily, lived in the 3d century. We have 7 idyls written by him, which are not without merit, and approach near to those of Virgil, although they are inferior to them in elegance and purity, as well as to those of Theocritus in simplicity and conformity to nature. The best edition is that of Beck (Leipsic, 1803).

CALTROP; a kind of thistle, armed with prickles, which grows in France, Italy and Spain, and is troublesome by running into the feet of cattle. Hence, in the military art, C. is an instrument with 4 iron points, disposed in a triangular form, 3 of them being turned to the ground, and the other pointing upwards. They are used to impede the progress of cavalry.

CALUMET; the Indian pipe of peace. The origin of the word is doubtful. Heckewelder, in his Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians (Phil. 1820), gives several derivations. Mr. Duponceau thinks it may come from the French chalumeau, a reed. Upon all occasions, when Indian chiefs and warriors meet in peace, or at the close of a war with those of another nation, in their talks and treaties with the whites, or even when a single person of distinction comes among them, the calumet is handed round with ceremonies peculiar to each tribe, and each member of the company draws a few whiffs. To accept the calumet, is to agree to the terms proposed; to refuse it, is to reject them. Some symbols of amity are found among all nations: the white flag, or flag of truce, of the moderns, and the olive branch of the ancients, are similar in character to the Indian calumet. The calumet is still in use arnong the Indians, and was introduced at a late interview between president Adams and the chiefs of some Indian tribes. Tobacco is smoked in the calumet, and the leaves of various other kinds of plants. The bowl of this pipe is made of different kinds of marble, and the stem of a reed, or of some light kind of wood, which is easily perforated. This stem is adorned in various ways; sometimes it is marked with the figures of animals, and hieroglyphical delineations, and almost universally has beautiful feathers attached to it, disposed according to the taste of the individual, or of the tribe to which he belongs. The calumet dance is the least hideous of the Indian dances. It is of a peaceful character, and seems to be intended to represent, by a series of movements, the power and utility of the calumet. It is rude and simple, as are all the dances of the Indians.

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CALVADOS; a dangerous ridge of rocks on the north coast of Normandy, extending (lat. 49° 22′ N.) to the west of Orne, for the space of 10 or 12 miles. It is so called from a Spanish vessel once wrecked on it, and gives its name to the department. (q. v.)

CALVADOS. (See Departments.)

CALVART, Dionysius, a painter, born at Antwerp, in 1555, went, very young, to Italy, as a landscape painter; where, in order to learn how to draw figures, he entered the school of Fontana and Sabbatini, in Bologna, with the latter of whom he visited Rome. After having passed some time in copying the paintings of Raphael, he opened a school at Bologna, from which proceeded 137 masters, and among these Albano, Guido and Domenichino. The people of Bologna regarded him as one of the restorers of their school, particularly in respect to coloring. C. understood perspective, anatomy and architecture; but the attitudes of his figures are sometimes mean and exaggerated. He died in 1619, at Bologna, where are his best paintings. Agostin Caracci and Sadeler have engraved some of his works.

CALVARY (in Heb., Golgotha, the skull, Luke xxiii. 33., or the place of the skull, Matt. xxvii. 33.); a mountain situated without the walls of Jerusalem, on which Jesus Christ was crucified. Matthew relates, that, at the time when our Savior expired, the earth shook, and the rocks split; and some modern travellers assert that the fissures in this mountain do not follow the direction of the strata, but are evidently supernatural. Jewish traditions affirmed, that Adam was buried on mount Calvary (credat Judæus), and the early Christians believed that Jesus Christ was crucified here, that the blood shed for the redemption of the world might also purify the remains of the first sinner!-Calvaries are small chapels, raised on hills in the vicinity of cities, with a crucifix, in allusion to the place and manner of Christ's death. Thus the calvary of mount Valerian, near Paris, is composed of 7 chapels, in each of which some mystery of the passion is represented.

CALVERT, George, the first baron of Baltimore, was descended of a Flemish family settled at Kipling, in Yorkshire, where he was born in 1582. He was educated at Oxford, and, after travelling abroad, entered into the service of Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. He was knighted by James I, and made clerk of the privy council, and, in 1619, was appointed one of the secretaries of state.

This post he resigned in 1624, in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic. Notwithstanding this, he retained the confidence of the king, who, in 1625, raised him to the Irish peerage of Baltimore. He had previously obtained a grant of land in the island of Newfoundland, where he was prevented from making a settlement by the invasions of the French. He therefore resigned his claim, receiving, instead of it, a territory on the American continent, now forming the state of Maryland. This country was colonized under the patronage of lord Baltimore, who displayed justice and good faith in his dealings with the Indians, and liberality to religious sects in his legislative arrangements, highly creditable to his principles and character. He died in Lonđồn, in 1632. He wrote some political tracts, and his speeches in parliament and letters have also been published.

CALVIN, John (so called from Calvinus, the Latinized form of his family name Chauvin), the second great reformer of the 16th century, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10,1509. His father, Gerard Chauvin, a cooper, dedicated him early to the church. C. says, in a letter, to Claude d'Hangest, abbot of St. Eloi, at Noyon, that he was indebted to the family of this prelate for his first instruction and a liberal education. When hardly 12 years old, he received a benefice in the cathedral of his native city. Six years after, he was appointed to a cure, which he soon exchanged for another. Thus, by the means of his benefactors, he enjoyed, even before his 20th year, several benefices, and even the title and income of a cure, while he was yet pursuing his studies in Paris. Here he became acquainted with his townsman Peter Robert Õlivetan, his senior by some years, from whom he received the first germ of the new doctrine, which was then beginning to spread in France. He was induced, by this, to renounce the study of theology, and to devote himself to law, at Orleans, and afterward at Bourges. He made rapid progress therein, and, at the same time, studied the Greek language, under Melchior Volmar, a German, who strengthened the inclination for innovations already awakened in him by Olivetan. In 1532, he returned to Paris, and resigned his benefices. In the same year, he published a Latin commentary upon the two books of Seneca, De Clementia, in which he called himself by his Latinized name, Johannes Calvinus, and was obliged, in 1533, to flee from Paris, be

cause his friend Michael Cop, rector of the university, was persecuted on account of a discourse in favor of the new doctine, in which he was suspected of having participated. C. took refuge in the house of Du Tillet, a canon at Angoulême, with whom he quietly pursued his studies, and began to collect the materials for his Christian Institution, which appeared two years afterwards. Thence he went to Nerac, to queen Margaret of Navarre, the sister of Francis I, who, not so much from a decided inclination for the new doctrine, as from love for science, afforded refuge to several learned men, who were obliged to leave France on account of their opinions. C. was very well received by her, and here became acquainted with several men, who, at a future time, were useful to his party; returned to Paris, but, in 1534, was again obliged to leave France. He retired to Bâle, where he published his Christian Institution, as the confession of faith of those who were persecuted in France, and condemned to the stake; in which it was his design to free them from the calumny, which had been circulated from political motives, that they were rebels and Anabaptists, and had nothing in common with the Lutheran doctrine. It would be difficult briefly to relate how he went farther than Luther in regard to the doctrine of free will, of imputative justice, and the merit of good works; but it is more easy to display the bold consequences which he drew from his doctrines. He attacked not only the supremacy of the pope, but even the authority of general councils; he does not recognise the character of a bishop or a priest any more than that of a visible head of the church; he permits no vows but those of baptism, and no sacraments but those of baptism and the Lord's supper; even these he does not regard as indispensable to salvation. The mass is to him a profanation, and the honors paid to the saints, idolatry. This work, Institutio Christiane Religionis, appeared afterwards in French, and almost every year was published by him with emendations and additions. The most complete edition was published by Robert Stephens, in 1559. The prefixed Præfatio ad Christianissimum regem, qua hic ei liber pro confessione fidei offertur, could not, however, put an end to the religious persecutions in France; since Francis I although far from being actuated by religious fanaticism, was influenced, by political views, to continue them. C. then