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near Ronciglione or Viterbo, and, including the Pontine marshes (q. v.), extends to Terracina. In the middle of this region lies, half deserted, the ancient capital of the world. The lakes of the C. are evidently craters of extinct volcanoes. Thus the lake Regillus, above Frascati, lies at the bottom of an inverted cone of hard, black lava, rising in wild and naked masses from 40 to 60 feet high. The craters containing the lakes of Albano and Nemi, which lie from 400 to 500 feet higher than the lake Regillus, have a very regular conical form. The lake of Albano is also remarkable for its aqueduct, or emissarium, one of the most ancient and excellent works of the Romans, which discharges the waters of the lake through the mountains. It was cut through the lava, in a year, by the command of an oracle, during the siege of Veii, when the lake threatened to inundate even Rome. (See Albano.) It answers its original purpose even at the present day. There are, also, many sulphur springs here, particularly between Rome and Tivoli, where the water issues almost boiling from the earth, and forms the lake of Solfatara, which contains floating islands, consisting of a calcarious deposit, which collects round substances thrown into the water. The water of the river, which issues from this lake, has the same qualities, and was considered, by the ancients, as particularly salutary. Near the lake were the baths of M. Agrippa. The soil of the C. is, in general, dry, but very fertile in the lower parts, though its cultivation is much neglected. From Monterosi to the hills of Albano, a tree is seldom to be seen. All the efforts of the French to diminish the malignity of the mal' aria in these regions, by planting trees, have been unsuccessful. There are no villages and towns in the C. Here and there you find single huts leaning against the ruins of old towers or temples, and patched up from their fragments. In the middle of the summer, when malignant fevers render a residence in the C. very dangerous, the unhappy inhabitants are obliged to take refuge in the neighboring towns, or in Rome, where they seek shelter under the porticoes of the churches and palaces. The great number of sick persons who fill the Roman hospitals during the months of July, August and September, are chiefly innabitants of the country. Besides their buts, innumerable ruins of temples, circuses and monuments are scattered about C., particularly near the Via Appia; and

long rows of aqueducts, some in ruins, some in a state of preservation, are overgrown with ivy and other plants. In the winter, flocks of sheep pasture in these solitudes; during the summer, they are driven up the Apennines. Herds of halfwild cattle remain during the whole year in the C. Their keepers, however, soon become a prey to the pestilence, or fall into a gradual decline. They are mostly natives of the mountains, and serve the proprietors of the herds for trifling wages. Bonstetten saw at Torre Paterno, very near Rome, a herd of several hundred cows, the proprietors of which did not consider it worth while to milk them, though milk is as dear in Rome as in other large cities. The herdsmen are mounted, and armed with long lances, with which they manage the cattle very skilfully. Scarcely a ninth part of the C. is cultivated; the rest is used for pasturage. In the times of the ancient Romans, this dreary solitude exhibited a smiling picture of abundance and fertility. Cornfields, groves, villas, monuments, alternated with each other, and, according to the accounts of Strabo, Varro and Pliny, the air was remarkably healthy, with the exception of a few marshy tracts along the coasts. The corruption of the climate originated as early as the 6th century, according to tradition, after some great inundations of the Tiber; which, however, still take place, without increasing the evil. The unhealthy air, the famous aria cattiva, is most injurious in the dry and hot seasons. The most probable supposition is, that it originated after the devastations of the barbarians, when the waters became stagnant from the want of human industry. The greatest obstacle to the removal of the evil is in the prejudices and indolence of the people. Thus the corruption is continually spreading, and has even attacked some quarters of Rome.

CAMPAIGN generally denotes the season during which armies keep the field. It also means an extensive level country. Formerly, when war was not carried on with so much impetuosity as at present, campaigns lasted only during the warmer months; and, towards winter, the troops went into winter-quarters, when the of ficers of the opposing armies often met very amicably at balls and other entertainments; but, of late, armies have kept the field through the winter, till a decisive victory has been gained. Thus the allies, in the winter of 1813-14, followed the French over the Rhine; some battles

were fought in January and February, and the armies remained, for several months, without roof or tent, in the open air of a cold winter.

CAMPAN, Jeanne Louise Henriette (originally Genet), born at Paris, Oct. 6, 1752, became reader to the daughters of Lou's XV; gained the favor of the wife of the dauphin, afterwards the queen Marie Antoinette, who gave her in marriage to the son of her private secretary, M. Campan, and appointed her the first lady of the bed-chamber. Madame C. gave her patroness many proofs of fidelity and attachment, and wished to follow her into the Temple after the 10th of Aug., 1792, which, however, Pethion did not allow. After the fall of Robespierre, madame C. established a boarding-school for the education of young ladies at St. Germain, which soon acquired a wide reputation. On this account, Napoleon appointed her the principal of an institution founded by him for the daughters of the officers of the legion of honor, at Ecouen, which she organized and superintended for seven years. After the restoration, Louis XVIII abolished this institution, and madame C. lost her situation. Her only son died in 1821, in consequence of ill treatment suffered because he was a relation of marshal Ney. Madame C. died at Paris, March 10, 1822. Of her Memoirs respecting the Private Life of the Queen Marie Antoinette, with Recollections of the Times of Louis XIV, XV, and XVI, in 4 vols. (translated into English, 1823), the fifth edition appeared at Paris, 1823. They contain interesting contributions to the history of the French revolution. Her Journal Anecdotique, also (Paris, 1824), is rich in piquant anecdotes of Napoleon, Alexander I, and others.

CAMPANELLA, Thomas; a native of Calabria, in Italy, famous for his talents and misfortunes. He displayed great quickness of parts when quite young, and, at the age of 15, entered into the order of the Dominicans. He studied theology and other branches of knowledge with assiduity, but was principally attracted by philosophy. The opinions of Aristotle, then generally taught in the schools, appeared to him unsatisfactory; and, in 1591, he published, at Naples, a work, entitled Philosophia Sensibus demonstrata, intended to show the futility of the prevailing doctrines. This book procured him some admirers, and more enemies. He then went to Rome, and afterwards to Florence, where he was well received by the grand-duke Ferdinand; but, not

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obtaining some preferment which he expected, he proceeded to Bologna, and then to Padua, where he gave lectures on philosophy. In 1598, he returned to Naples, and revisited, shortly after, Calabria, where, in the following year, he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, to which Naples was then subject. A scheme was imputed to him of having engaged the Turks to assist him in making himself master of Calabria. On this improbable and apparently unfounded accusation, he was imprisoned, and, after being repeatedly tortured, condemned to perpetual confinement. In this situation, he wrote many learned works, afterwards published. At length, in 1626, pope Urban VIII procured his removal to Rome, and, in 1629, gave him his liberty, and bestowed on him a pension. Dreading some further persecution from the Spaniards, he withdrew, in 1634, to France, where he was honorably received, and much esteemed by the learned men of that coun-try. He died at Paris in 1639.-C. was a man of more imagination than judgment, displaying his talents rather by undermining the systems of others than by establishing his own. He was a believer in astrology, one of the follies of the age; and some of his opinions were very eccentric. His works are extremely numerous.

CAMPANIA; the ancient name of a province of Italy, in the present kingdom of Naples, which, partly on account of its natural curiosities, including Vesuvius, the Phlegræan fields, the lake of Avernus, and partly for its remarkable fertility, was a favorite resort of the distinguished Romans, who built there magnificent country-houses. Cuma, Puteoli, Naples, Herculaneumn, Pompeii, Capreæ, Salernum and Capua, the principal cities of C., are names rich in classical associations. The Appian and Latin ways led into the interior of this charming province. Even now, C., or Terra di Lavoro, is the most beautiful and fruitful part of Italy; and no traveller can wish for a more delightful country than the fields of C., filled, in the month of April, with barley four feet high, and adorned with lofty poplars, which are connected by luxuriant vines, forming a canopy over the fields. "There," says Göthe, "it is worth while to till the ground."

CAMPANILE; a detached tower, in some parts of Italy, erected for the purpose of containing bells. Several of them have deviated considerably from the perpen

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dicular, in consequence of their great height and narrowness of base. The campanile of Pisa, called Torre Pendente, or Hanging Tower, is the most remarkable of these. Its height is 150 feet, and it inclines nearly 13 feet from the perpendicular. The tower consists of eight stories, each of which is surrounded by columns. (See Bologna.)

CAMPBELL, George, a distinguished Scotch divine, was born at Aberdeen, in 1709. He was educated at Mareschal college, and afterwards articled to a writer of the signet at Edinburgh. In 1741, he relinquished the law, and studied divinity. In 1759, he was appointed principal of Mareschal college. In 1763, he published his celebrated Dissertation on Miracles, in answer to the Essay on Miracles of Mr. Hume. This Dissertation was translated into the French and Dutch languages. In 1771, C. was chosen professor of divinity, and, in 1776, gave to the world his Philosophy of Rhetoric, which established his reputation as an accurate grammarian, a sound critic and a tasteful scholar. He also published occasional sermons. The last work which he lived to publish, was his Translation of the Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations and Notes (2 vols. 4to.) He died in 1796. Besides the works already mentioned, his Lectures on Systematic Theology and the Pastoral Character (folio) have been printed since his death; as also his Lectures on the Ecclesiastical Character (2 vols. 8vo.), with his life prefixed.

CAMPBELL, John, a native of Edinburgh, was, when very young, brought to England. His earliest productions are not certainly known; but, in 1736, he published the Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough (2 vols. folio), which gained him so much reputation, that he was engaged, soon after, to assist in writing the ancient part of the Universal History, in 60 vols. 8vo. In 1742, he published the first two volumes of the Lives of the Admirals and other British Seamen, the two last volumes of which appeared in 1744. In 1745 commenced the publication of the Biographia Britannica, one of the most important undertakings in which C. was engaged. The articles written by him, extending through four volumes of the work, are, both in point of style and matter, much superior to those of his coadjutors. They are liable, however, to one general censure, arising from the almost unvarying strain of panegyric, in which the writer indulges, and which has re

peatedly subjected him to critical animad version. In 1750, he published the Pres ent State of Europe, containing much historical and political information. He was then employed on the modern part of the Universal History. His last and favorite work was a Political Survey of Great Britain (1774, 2 vols. 4to.) C. died Dec. 28, 1775.

CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glasgow, Scotland, Sept. 7, 1777, and early displayed a remarkable vivacity of imagination and vigor of mind. He entered the university of Glasgow at the early age of 12, and immediately distinguished himself by carrying off the academical prizes, particularly for translations from the Greek poets. Moral philosophy was one of his favorite pursuits; but he never applied himself to any professional studies. After passing 7 years at the university, he went to Edinburgh, and produced, at the age of 20, his principal poem, the Pleasures of Hope, which established his reputation in England. Harmony of versification, a polished and graceful diction, and an accurate finish, are united with an ardent poetical sensibility, in this youthful production. The passage concerning the partition and subjugation of Poland is full of the lyric fire, which afterwards burst forth so brilliantly in the Mariners of England, the Battle of the Baltic, and Hohenlinden. In 1800, he visited the continent, and passed a year in Germany, where he became acquainted with the principal poets and literati. Here he witnessed the bloody fight of Hohenlinden, which inspired one of his finest lyric effusions. On leaving the continent, he visited London for the first time, and resided there till his marriage, in 1803, when he removed to Sydenham, where he resided about 20 years, receiving a pension of £200 from the crown. He has lately lived in London. In 1808 appeared his Annals of Great Britain, from the Accession of George III to the Peace of Amiens (3 vols., Svo.) In 1809, he published a volume of poems containing Gertrude of Wyoming, a Pennsylvanian tale. It is full of pathos and beautiful simplicity. In O'Connor's Child he has touched a wilder string of passion and despair. His Theodric (1824) disappointed every body; and C. has, of late, done nothing worthy of his earlier productions. He is remarkable for his severe criticism of his own works, and this may account for his having written so little for the last 25 years. His poems have all been republished in America, where they

are very popular His Specimens of British Poets, with biographical and critical Notices, and an Essay on English Poetry (1819, 7 vols., 8vo.), contain short extracts from the poets, from the time of Chaucer to that of Anstey. His Lectures on Poetry were written, originally, for the London Institution, and afterwards delivered in different cities of the kingdom, to his own profit and honor. They were printed, or at least a part of them, in the New Monthly Magazine. This magazine was originally projected by C. It appeared in 1821, and was edited by C. about four years, with much reputation. He was one of the early promoters of the London university, and, by his letter to Mr. Brougham, which first appeared in the Times, Feb. 9, 1825, and by his Suggestions, which appeared in the New Monthly soon afterwards, materially furthered that great project. In 1827, he was elected rector of the university of Glasgow-an office without labor or emolument. His rival was sir Walter Scott, and the election was made entirely on political grounds, C. representing the whig interest, to which he has always been attached.-C. is a very amiable and interesting person in private life, of lively manners, and devoted entirely to literary pursuits. Besides his pension and the profits of his literary labors, he has a small inheritance, received from an uncle.

CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, born in 1746, at Deensen, in the territory of Brunswick, studied theology at Helmstadt, in Halle. In 1773, he was a chaplain in the Prussian service. He founded a private institution for education near Hamburg, but left it, on account of his health, in 1783, to professor Trapp. He died, Oct. 22, 1818, at the age of 72 years. His philosophical treatises, as well as the works which he composed for the instruction of youth, display a noble and philanthropic spirit. The services which he has rendered to the cause of education have been universally acknowledged. His style is pure and flowing, artless and animated. He possessed a rare faculty of accommodating himself to the youthful capacity. His endeavors to purify and enrich the German language were carried to excess. His writings for the instruction of childhood and youth were published together, at Brunswick, 1806-9, in 30 vols. 12mo., with copperplates. His Robinson the Younger has been translated into almost all the European languages, even into modern Greek. His Theophron has also had a wide circulation. His Wörter

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buch der Deutschen Sprache (Brunswick, 1807-11, 5 vols. 4to.) is a production of much merit. His letters written (1789) from Paris, containing warm eulogiums on the French revolution, are bold and eloquent, but marked with the enthusiastic exaggeration of the time, and drew upon him many serious and satirical attacks.

CAMPEACHY, or CAMPECHE; a seaport town of Mexico, in Yucatan, in a bay to which it gives name, on the west coast of the peninsula of Yucatan; 90 miles W. S. W. Merida; lon. 90° 31' W.; lat. 19° 51′ N.; population, 6000. It is defended by a castle furnished with cannon, and has several times been taken from the Spaniards, and plundered. Its port is large, but shallow. The houses are well built of stone. The exportation of the wax of Yucatan constitutes one of the most lucrative branches of its trade. It has a manufacture of cotton cloth. It was, for a long time, the chief mart for logwood, of which great quantities grew in the neighborhood, before the English landed here, and cut it at the isthmus. At the time when it was taken by the Spaniards, it was said to have contained 3000 houses, and considerable monuments of Indian art.-The bay of Campeachy lies on the south-west of the peninsula of Yucatan, and on the north of the province of Tabasco.

CAMPER, Peter, born at Leyden, 1722, died at the Hague, April 7, 1789, was one of the most learned and acute physicians and anatomists of the 18th century. He distinguished himself in anatomy, surgery, obstetrics and medical jurisprudence, and also as a writer on the beautiful. He drew with great skill with the pen, painted in oil, modelled in wax, and knew how to handle the chisel of the sculptor. C. was the first who proved that the ape, of which the ancients have left anatomical descriptions, was a species of orang outang. His essays on lithotomy, &c., have spread light on these subjects. He was much devoted to comparative osteology, and believed, what the discoveries of Cuvier have confirmed, that there have really existed animals of which the species are at present extinct. His Dissertation on the natural Varieties, &c., is the first work which has thrown much light on the varieties of the humar species, which the author distinguishes by the shape of the skull. His Treatise on the natural Difference of Features in Persons of various Countries and Ages, and on Beauty as exhibited in ancient Paintings and Engravings, followed by a

method of delineating various sorts of heads with accuracy, is intended to prove that the rules laid down by the most celebrated limners and painters are very defective. His general doctrine is, that the difference in form and cast of countenance proceeds from the facial angle. (q. v.) In his essay on the organs of speech in apes, he proves that nature has rendered the pronunciation of articulate sounds impossible, even to those which approach nearest to man, by lateral pouches connected with the windpipe. C. wrote in four languages, and received ten prizes from different academies. He received his education at Leyden, and travelled, and obtained the acquaintance of many of the most distinguished men of Europe, after which he was made professor of philosophy, medicine and surgery in Franeker. He taught the same sciences, afterwards, in Amsterdam and Gröningen. CAMPETTI; an Italian, born at Gargnano, on lake Garda, who has attracted much attention, in our time, by pretending to be capable of ascertaining, by his feelings, the places where metals and water exist under the ground. Many experiments seemed to confirm his statements. The king of Bavaria sent for him in 1806, and he came to Münich, where the experiments were renewed. These experiments were chiefly made with pendulums of sulphurous pyrites, which are said to vibrate if brought near to metals. Information on this subject is contained in Aretin's Neuer Literarischer Anzeiger (1807), beginning with No. 22. Gilbert also published, in 1808, interesting elucidations of these experiments. (See Rhabdomancy.)

CAMPHOR is a white, resinous production, of peculiar and powerful smell, not unlike that of rosemary, and is extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the bay tribe, that grow in the islands of the East Indies and China. Of these, the principal is the laurus camphora of Linnæus. It is of considerable height, much branched, and has spear-shaped leaves, with nerves, of a pale-yellowish-green color on the upper side, and bluish-green beneath. The flowers are small, white, and stand on stalks which issue from the junction of the leaves and branches. Camphor is found in every part of the trees; in the interstices of the perpendicular fibres, and in the veins of the wood, in the crevices and knots, in the pith, and in the roots, which afford by far the greatest abundance. The method of extracting it consists in distilling with water

in large iron pots, which serve as the body of the still, with earthen heads fitted to them, stuffed with straw, and provided with receivers. Most of the camphor becomes condensed in the solid form among the straw, and part comes over with the water. Its sublimation is performed in low, flat-bottomed glass vessels, placed in sand, and the camphor becomes concrete, in a pure state, against the upper part, whence it is afterwards separated with a knife, after breaking the glass.-Numerous other vegetables are found to yield camphor by distillation. Among them are thyme, rosemary, sage, elecampane, anemone and pusatilla. A smell of camphor is disengaged when the volatile oil of fennel is treated with acids; and a small quantity of camphor may be obtained from oil of turpentine by simple distillation, at a very gentle heat.-Camphor has a bitterish, aromatic taste, is unctuous to the touch, and possesses a degree of toughness which prevents it from being pulverized with facility, unless a few drops of alcohol be added, when it is easily reduced to a powder. It floats on water, and is exceedingly volatile, being gradually dissipated in vapor if kept in open vessels. At 288° Fahr. it enters into fusion, and boils at 400° Fahr. It is insoluble in water, but is dissolved freely by alcohol, from which it is immediately precipitated, in milky clouds, on the addition of water. It is likewise soluble in the fixed and volatile oils, and in strong acetic acid. Sulphuric acid decomposes camphor, converting it into a substance like artificial tannin. With nitric acid, it yields a peculiar acid, called camphoric acid. This acid combines with alkalies, and forms peculiar salts, called camphorates. They have not hitherto been applied to any useful purpose.-As an internal medicine, camphor has been frequently employed, in doses of from 5 to 20 grains, with much advantage, to procure sleep in mania, and to counteract gangrene. In large doses, it acts as a poison. Dissolved in acetic acid, with some essential oils, it forms the aromatic vinegar. It promotes the solution of copal; and, from the circumstance that its effluvia are very noxious to insects, it is much used to defend subjects of natural history from their ravages.-In a crude state, camphor is formed into irregular lumps, of a yellowish-gray color, somewhat resembling nitre or bay-salt. It is imported into Europe in canisters, and the refining of it was long kept a secret by the Venetians. The Dutch have since