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presents. Encouraged by this success, the company grew stronger, their fables and speeches became longer by degrees, until they attained to regular representations of human life." It was in Nuremberg, renowned for its wares and its wit, that the first fast-eve's play was produced, coarse and frolicsome, to suit the taste of the citizens. These pieces have a near relationship to the masques of the English and the farces of the French, as have the spiritual fast-eve's plays, religious burlesques, to the Mysteries and Moralities. According to the ancient custom, these plays were opened and closed by a crier or herald. The carnival is celebrated, in modern times, with the greatest show and spirit at Venice and Rome. In the former place, it begins after Christmas. The diversions of it are shows, masquerades, the amusements of the place of St. Mark, and sometimes, in case of the visits of great princes, a regatta, or boat-race. After this, there was a second carnival in Venice, the Venetian mass, called also the festival of the Ascension, and the Bucentaur festival, because it commonly began on Ascension-day, and because the celebration of the marriage of the doge with the Adriatic sea was connected with it. It con

tinued 14 days. No character-masks were worn there, however, except Venetian dominos. The carnival at Rome (see Göthe's excellent description, Das Römische Carneval, and that of lady Morgan) continues but eight days, and is occupied mostly in masquerades and races. Since the return of peace, the carnival has been celebrated again in Cologne, on the Rhine, under the direction of the committee of fools, to the great satisfaction of all who were present. In Spain, the carnival is called carnestolendas.

CARNOT, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite; born at Nolay, in Burgundy, 1753; the son of an advocate. From his youth, he exhibited an uncommon talent for the mathematical and military sciences, entered the corps of engineers, and rose in office by the favor of the prince of Condé. He published, afterwards, Mathematical Essays, which caused him to be elected a member of several learned societies. His eulogy on Vauban received the prize of the academy at Dijon. At the beginning of the revolution, he was captain in the corps of engineers. In 1791, he was appointed deputy to the constituent assembly, but at first took part only in military affairs. At his proposal, the officers of the nobility were removed from the

army, and others substituted from the citizens. As a member of the convention, he voted for the death of Louis. In the following March, he was sent to the army of the north, where he deprived the cowardly general Gratien of his command on the field, put himself at the head of the army, and repulsed the enemy. On his return to the convention, he was made a member of the committee of public safety. (q. v.) The influence of Carnot in the military operations now began to be more deeply felt. In possession of all the plans deposited in the archives of Louis XIV, he organized and directed the French armies; and his direction undoubtedly contributed very much to their success. After the fall of Robespierre, he was often accused, but always acquitted, because his duty had been to take care of the defence of the country, and he could not be made answerable for the cruel decrees of Robespierre, in which Carnot's name, as he was a member of the committee, of course, was to be found. At the establishment of the directory, in 1795, Carnot was chosen a member, and for some time, maintained an important influence. Barras at length succeeded him in the department of war, and was ever after, his enemy. His plan for the overthrow of Barras was unsuccessful, and, with some others, he was sentenced to transportation on the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4), 1797. He fled to Germany, and published a defence, which was eagerly read in Paris, and, by the exposure of the conduct of his former colleagues, hastened their overthrow on the 30th Prairial (June 18), 1799. After the 18th Brumaire, Carnot was recalled and appointed inspecteur aux revues, and, two months later, in April, 1800, minister of war. He soon after retired into the bosom of his family, but was called to the tribunate, March 9, 1802. The same inflexible integrity and republican principle, which had hitherto distinguished him, did not now desert him. He often opposed the views of the government, voted alone against the consulship for life, and resisted strenuously the proposal for the imperial dignity. He remained, however, a member of the tribunate till it was abolished, passed the next seven years of his life in retirement, and published several valuable military works. In 1814, Napoleon gave him the chief command at Antwerp. He connected a vigorous defence with a careful regard for the interest of the city, which, by the command of Louis XVIII, he afterwards surrendered to the English gen

eral Graham. He still retained his titles and his honors, but, as a firm republican, he could never expect the favor of the court; particularly as, in his memorial to the king, he openly and severely censured the measures of government, in consequence of which he was passed over in the new organization of the academy of sciences. When Napoleon was once more at the helm of state, in 1815, he made Carnot count and peer of the empire, and pressed upon him the ministry of the interior. Carnot discharged the difficult duties of this office with his usual integrity. After the emperor's second fall, he was made a member of the provisory government of France, and was afterwards the only one of the members of it comprehended in the ordinance of July 24. He retired to Cerney, where he employed his pen on political subjects; then to Warsaw, in 1815, with his family; and, finally, to Magdeburg, where he died Aug. 3, 1823. (See the Corresp. de Nap. Buonap. av. le Cte. Carnot pend. les 100 Jours (Paris, 1819), and Carnot's Leben (Carnot's Life), by Körte.) The brothers Baudouin, in Paris, who have in their possession all Carnot's manuscripts, published, in 1824, Mem. histor. et militaires sur Carnot, redigés d'après ses Manuscrits, sa Corresp. inédite, et ses Écrits, etc., par Tissot. Among Carnot's writings, the most valuable are his Essai sur les Machines; Reflexions sur la Métaphysique du Calcul infinitesimal; Sur la "Geometrie du Position; De la Défense des Places fortes; Exposé de la Conduite politique de Carnot, "depuis le 1 Juill., 1814. In Magdeburg, Carnot published Mémoire sur la Fortification primitive, and a volume of poems. He was rigid in his love of virtue, a scholar, a general, and an inflexible republican. He was universally esteemed, both in France and in foreign lands, and was honored by all parties. Carnot's life is one of those which ought to be familier to every young republican, like that of Barneveldt. (q. v.)

CARO, Annibale, one of the most celebrated Italian authors of the 16th century, born 1507, at Città-Nuova, in the March of Ancona, after the death of his patron, Gaddi, 1543, was appointed secretary to Pietro Ludovico Farnese, duke of Parma and Piacenza, who intrusted him with several missions to Charles V. After the assassination of the duke, his own life was in considerable danger. He took refuge in Parma, and was treated in a friendly manner by the new duke, Octa vio Farnese, whose two brothers, the car45

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dinals Ranuccio and Alexander, took him successively into their service. With the latter he remained from 1548 to his death in 1566, and received from him several ecclesiastical preferments. Caro devoted himself chiefly to the study of numismatics and the Tuscan language, and his pure and elegant style, in verse and prose, soon became generally admired. His translation of the Æneid, in blank verse, is excellent. After his death, appeared a translation by him of Longus, and of Aristotle's Rhetoric; als Rime and Lettere, the former of which are admired for the elegance of the verse, and the latter as models of beautiful Italian prose. He belongs to the most elegant writers of Italian literature.

CAROLINA. This name is generally given to a famous law of the German empire, of the year 1532, under Charles V, which he called himself an ordinance of criminal procedure (Peinliche Gerichtsordnung). From him, it was, at a later period, called Constitutio criminalis Carolina, or, shortly, Carolina. The arbitrary administration of justice, the disorder and cruelty which had become customary in the courts of Germany, where many a process was begun and ended with the torture, and persons were sentenced even to death without regular process, gave occasion to this law. From the beginning of the peace of the land, the necessity of such a law was felt throughout the country; but it was difficult, in this, as in all other cases, to make the different members of the empire agree on one general measure. The baron John von Schwarzenberg, a man of talent and a patron of science (of the family of the present princes of Schwarzenberg), was chiefly instrumental in introducing this ordinance. He was born in 1463, became minister of state of the prince-bishop of Bamberg, and succeeded in procuring an ordinance of criminal procedure for Bamberg to be drawn up and published in 1507. The same was also adopted, in 1510, by the margrave of Brandenburg and Franconia; and, at last, a law of criminal procedure for the empire at large was passed by the diet at Regensburg, in 1532, which, for that time, was a very great step, and had a salutary influence. ence. Several German princes, as the elector of Saxony, the elector of Brandenburg, and of the palatinate, protested against it, in order to protect the laws of their states and their own privileges against the legislative power of the emperor; but at last the Carolina was

the level parts, the soil, generally, is but indifferent. On the banks of some of the rivers, however, and particularly the Roanoke, it is remarkably fertile; and in other parts of this champaign country, glades of rich swamp, and ridges of oakÏand, of a black and fruitful soil, form an exception to its general sterility. The sea coasts, the sounds, inlets, and lower parts of the rivers, have, invariably, a soft, muddy bottom. That part of the state which lies west of the mountains is, for the most part, remarkably fertile, and abounds with oak-trees of various kinds, walnut, elm, linn and cherry-trees; the last of which not unfrequently attains the size of 3 feet in diameter. The soil and productions, in the hilly country, are nearly the same as in the Northern States. Wheat, rye, barley, oats and flax are the crops most generally cultivated, and seem to suit well the nature of the soil. Throughout the whole state, Indian corn and pulse of all kinds are abundant. Cotton is raised in considerable quantities. North Carolina abounds in iron ore; and it is the only one of the U. States in which gold has been found in any considerable quantities. The gold mines, which have lately excited a good deal of interest, though they have not yet proved very productive, are found on the Yadkin and its branches, and extend over a district comprising about 1000 square miles. In almost any part of this territory, gold may be found in greater or less abundance, mixed with the soil. It exists in minute grains or particles, and is also sometimes found in lumps of one or two pounds weight. Of the plains in the low country, the large natural growth is, almost universally, pitch pine, a tall and beautiful tree, which grows here to a size far superior to the pitch pine of the Northern States. This valuable tree affords pitch, tar, turpentine, and various kinds of lumber, which, together, constitute about one half of the exports of North Carolina. It is of two kinds, the common and the long-leaved. The latter differs from other pines, not in shape, but in the length of its leaves, which are nearly half a yard long, and hang in large clusters. The trees in the low countries, both of North and South Carolina, are loaded with quantities of a long, spongy moss, which, hanging in clusters from the limbs, gives the forests a singular appearance. The misletoe frequently engrafts itself upon the trees in the back country. In this part, plums, grapes, blackberries and strawberries grow spontaneously; also

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several valuable medicinal plants, as ginseng, Virginia snakeroot, Seneca snakeroot, and some others. The rich bottoms are overgrown with canes, the leaves of which continue green through the winter, and afford good pasture for cattle.-North Carolina is far removed from that perfection of culture, which is necessary to give it the full advantage of the natural richness of its soil and the value of its productions. One great cause of its backwardness, in agricultural improvement, is the want of inland navigation, and of good harbors. It has several large rivers, but their mouths are blocked up with bars of hard sand. The best of the indifferent harbors in this state are those of Wilmington, Newbern and Edenton. The most of the produce of the upper country, consisting of tobacco, wheat, maize, &c., has hitherto been carried to Charleston, S. C., and to Lynchburg, and Petersburg, Va. Since 1815, the state has been zealously engaged in an extensive system of internal improvements. These improvements relate to the navigation of the sound, inlets, and the rivers Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, cape Fear, Yadkin, Catawba, &c.; the construction of canals and roads, and the draining of marshes and swamps.-Like all the Southern States, North Carolina has a considerable diversity of climate, occasioned by the physical peculiarities of its different parts. In the level part of the country, intermittent fevers are frequent during the summer and autumn. During these sickly seasons, the countenances of the inhabitants have a pale-yellowish hue, occasioned by the prevalence of bilious affections. Many fall victims, during the winter, to pleurisies and peripneumonies. In the western and hilly parts, the air is as pure and salubrious as in any part of America, and the inhabitants live to a great age. The heat of the summer's day is succeeded in the evening by a grateful and refreshing coolness. Autumn is temperate and serene, and, in some years, the winters are so mild, that autumn_may be said to continue till spring. The wheat harvest commences in the beginning of June, and that of Indian corn early in September.-In 1827, merchandise to the value of $276,791 was imported into North Carolina, and $449,237 worth exported. (For similar accounts of preceding years, see Watterson and Zandt's Tabular Statistical Views, Washington, Jan. 1829).

Historical Sketch of North Carolina. In 1586, the first attempt was made by the English to colonize North America, under

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a patent to sir Francis Drake. A small colony was left on the Roanoke in 1587, but was never again to be found; all attempts to ascertain their fate were fruitless. Some emigrants from Virginia penetrated into the country about 1650, and made the first actual settlement of whites. On the early Spanish maps, what is now called Carolina had been marked as part of Florida. The French had given it the name of Carolina in honor of king Charles IX, when they made the disastrous attempt to colonize the North American coast, noticed under the head of Florida. The name Carolina prevailed. In 1661, a second English colony from Massachusetts arrived, and established themselves at cape Fear river. In 1667, after many vexatious struggles, the infant colony obtained a representative government. Two years later, the fanciful constitution, so famous under the name of Locke's scheme of government, was introduced. This wild project was soon abandoned; and, like other English colonies, Carolina advanced but slowly, and experienced the horrors of Indian warfare as late as 1712. Previous to 1717, Carolina had been a proprietary government, but, in that year, became a royal one by purchase, and continued such until the revolution in 1775. In 1720, the two Carolinas were separated into North and South Carolina. The inaccessible coast of North Carolina gave it very great advantages in the revolutionary war. Those destructive inroads, from which other states along the Atlantic suffered so much, were here impracticable. Though, however, less exposed, the people of this state evinced their full share of sympathy with the residue of the American people. A convention was assembled at Halifax, where, on Dec. 18, 1776, the existing constitution was adopted. Since that auspicious event, it may be doubted whether any other community ever passed 52 years with less disturbance. (Darby's View of the U. States. See Carey and Lea's American Atlas.)

CAROLINA, South; one of the U. States; bounded N. by North Carolina, E. by the Atlantic, S. W. and W. by Georgia; lon. 78° 24′ to 83° 30′ W.; lat. 32° to 35° 8' N.; 200 miles long, 125 broad; containing 30,000 square miles. Population in 1790, 240,000: in 1800, 345,591: in 1810, 415, 115; 200,919 blacks: in 1820, 502,741; whites, 237,440; white males, 120,934; white females, 116,506; slaves, 258,475; free colored, 6,826. Militia in 1821, 23,729.

S. Carolina is divided into 30 districts.

Columbia is the seat of government, but Charleston is the largest town.-The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senate consists of 43 members, chosen every 4 years by districts. The representatives are chosen every 2 years. The governor and lieutenant-governor are chosen biennially, by a joint ballot of both houses.-The principal denominations of Christians in South Carolina are Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Baptists and Methodists.-Education is liberally patronised by the state government. The two literary institutions are the college of South Carolina at Columbia, and Charleston college, in the city of Charleston.-The distinguishing virtues of the Carolinians are hospitality to strangers, and charity to the indigent and distressed. The planters in the low country, who, in general, have large incomes, live in a luxurious and splendid style, devoting much of their time to the pursuit of pleasure, and possessing much of that pride and dignity of spirit, which characterize an independent country gentleman. The virtues of the farmers of the upper country are less brilliant, but more substantial. They have fewer vices, are of more frugal and industrious habits, and exhibit greater fortitude in the reverses of fortune. In the low or alluvial country, labor in the field is performed almost wholly by slaves, who, in this part of the state, exceed the free inhabitants in the ratio of more than three to one. This division, comprising less than one third of the territory of South Carolina, contains more than half of the slaves, and only about one fifth of the whites.-The_principal rivers are the Waccamaw, Pedee, Black river, Santee, Cooper, Ashley, Stono, Edisto, Asheppo, Cambahee, Coosaw, Broad and Savannah.-South Carolina is divided by nature into two parts, which, from their physical situation, have been called Upper and Lower Carolina. The latter is supposed to have once been under the ocean. Towards the coast, the country is a level plain, extending more than 100 miles westward from the sea. Here the eye finds no relief from the dull uniformity of boundless forests, swamps, and level fields. This fatiguing plain is succeeded by a curious range of little sand hills, resembling the waves of an agitated sea. This singular country occupies an extent of about 60 miles. It is extremely barren, enlivened here and there by spots of verdure, or by some straggling pines; and its few inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by the