548 CARTWRIGHT-CARVER. came a first lieutenant in 1766. In 1774, his attention was turned to politics. In his Letters on American Independence, written in this year, he advocated a union between the colonies and the mother state, under separate legislatures, and argued this great question on the foundation of natural, inherent right; maintaining "that the liberty of man is not derived from charters, but from God, and that it is original in every one." In 1775, he was appointed major of the Nottinghamshire militia, and, after several ineffectual attempts, on the part of government, to remove him from that post, his dismission was finally accomplished, in 1792, in consequence of an act of parliament. In the American war, lord Howe was desirous of having him with him in America; but major Cartwright, although always eager for promotion in the navy, refused the proposal, alleging that he could not fight in a cause which he disapproved.-From this time, he devoted himself to the two great objects of annual parliaments and universal suffrage. In 1779, he succeeded in the establishment of a Society for Constitutional Information, and was the author of a Declaration of Rights, distributed by the society, which, sir William Jones said, "ought to be written in letters of gold."-The French revolution was warmly welcomed by Cartwright, as by other friends of liberty. The alliance of the sovereigns, which soon followed, he considered equally irreconcilable with policy and with national justice. The subsequent prosecutions against the friends of reform, the fate of Muir and of Holt, occasioned no small dismay among the people. In the trials of Tooke, Hardy, Thelwall and others, Cartwright took a great interest, was present as a witness, and displayed much openness, fearlessness and firmness. By his writings, public addresses, &c., he continued to promote the work of reform and constitutional liberty; and, as late as 1819, he was tried for conspiracy and sedition, for advising the inhabitants of Birmingham to send what he called their "legislatorial attorney" to the house; but he escaped with a fine of £100.-Major Cartwright was not a political reformer only. The plan of making the slave-trade piracy, is said to have been first developed in his Letters on the Slave-Trade. The information which he furnished to Daines Barrington respecting the possibility of approaching the north pole; his plan for a perpetual supply of English oak for the navy, which has since been partially adopted, and several other useful projects and inventions, are sufficient evidences of his enterprise, activity and diversified knowledge. He died in 1824, in the 84th year of his age. He has been described as alike just in all the relations of life, as a citizen, a politician, a husband and a friend; disinterested, firm and fearless; and Fox, upon presenting one of his petitions to the house, remarked, "He is one, whose enlightened mind and profound constitutional knowledge place him in the highest rank of public characters, and whose purity of principle, and consistency of conduct through life, command the most respectful attention to his opinions." The most prominent traits of his character are enterprise, firmness and perseverance. He was a fruitful writer, quick, ingenious, powerful in argument, and sometimes eloquent. His language plain, pure and strong. CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Con- . necticut, in 1732. He embraced a mili tary career, and, in the French war, commanded with reputation a company of provincials, in the expedition across the lakes, against Canada. When peace was concluded, in 1763, captain Carver undertook to explore the vast territory which Great Britain had gained. His object was, to acquire a knowledge of the manners, customs, languages, soil, and natural productions of the nations and region beyond the Mississippi, and to ascertain the breadth of the continent by penetrating to the Pacific over its widest part, between N. lat. 43° and 46°. He accordingly set out from Boston in 1766, and, having reached Michillimackinac, the remotest English post, applied to Mr. Rogers, the governor, for an assortment of goods, as presents for the Indians dwelling in the parts through which his course was to be directed. Receiving a portion of the supply which he desired, and a promise that the residue should be sent to him at the falls of St. Anthony, he continued his journey. But, not obtaining the goods at the appointed place, in consequence of their having been disposed of elsewhere by those to whom the governor had intrusted them, he found it necessary to return to la Prairie du Chien. He then, in the beginning of the year 1767, directed his steps northward, with a view of finding a communication from the heads of the Mississippi into lake Superior, in order to meet, at the grand portage on the north-west side of that lake, the traders that usually come, about this season, from Michillimackinac from whom CARVER-CARY. he intended to purchase goods, and then to pursue his journey. He reached lake Superior in good time; but, unfortunately, the traders whom he met there could not furnish him with any goods, as they had barely enough for their own purposes, and, in consequence, he was obliged to return to the place whence he first departed, which he did in October, 1768, after remaining some months on the north and east borders of lake Superior, and exploring the bays and rivers that empty themselves into that body of water. He soon after repaired to England, with the view of publishing his journal and charts, and of obtaining a reimbursement for the expenses which he had incurred. Having undergone a long examination before the lords commissioners of trade and plantations, he received permission to publish his papers; but, when they were nearly ready for the press, an order was issued from the council-board, requiring him to deliver immediately into the plantationoffice all his charts and journals. He was, consequently, obliged to re-purchase them, at a great expense, from the bookseller to whom he had disposed of thema loss for which he received no indemnification, but was forced to be satisfied with that obtained for his other expenses. He had fortunately kept copies of his papers, and he published them ten years afterwards, in Boston, while in the situation of clerk of a lottery. Having sold his name to a historical compilation, which was published in 1779, in folio, entitled The New Universal Traveller, 'containing an account of all the empires, kingdoms and states in the known world, he was abandoned by those whose duty it was to support him, and died in want of the common necessaries of life, in 1780, aged 48 years.-Besides his travels above noticed, captain Carver published a tract on the culture of tobacco. CARY, Lucius (viscount Falkland), one of those rare characters who serve as proverbial instances of social excellence, was horn about the year 1610. Being carried young into Ireland, he received part of his education at Trinity college, Dublin, and part at St. John's college, Cambridge. His youth did not pass without irregularities, but they were suddenly closed by his marriage with a young lady of small fortune, whom he passionately loved. After passing some time abroad, he returned home, and devoted himself to a life of retirement, and the cultivation of polite literature. In 1633, he was appointed one of the gentlemen of the bed 549 chamber to Charles I, but still chiefly resided at his seat at Burford, near Oxford, which he made a kind of academy of learned men, being continually surrounded by the most eminent men of the neighboring universities. Here it was that Chillingworth composed his famous work against popery; and questions of morals, theology and literature were discussed, in a congenial circle, with the utmost freedom. Lord Falkland himself was deeply read in works of controversy; but in him they produced only strictness of principle, and an aspiration after perfection, without debasing the man in the exaltation of the scholar. In 1639, he joined the expedition against Scotland; and, in 1640, his peerage being Scotch, he was chosen member of the house of commons for Newport, in the Isle of Wight. In the first instance, like many of the most honorable characters of the day, he warmly supported parliament. He spoke with severity against Finch and Strafford, and was so disgusted with the proceedings of Laud, that he concurred in the first bill for depriving the bishops of a vote in the house of lords. A strong attachment, however, to established forms, and some doubts of the ultimate objects of the parliamentary leaders, caused him to retract; and he afterwards strongly opposed the same measure. He still, however, kept at a distance from the court; but his high character rendered it so great an object to gain him over to the king's service, that at length he was induced to accept a seat in the council, and the office of secretary of state. While in office, he refused to employ spies or open suspected letters. He very decidedly embraced the party of the king, when hostilities commenced, and attended him at the battle of Edge-hill, and the siege of Gloucester. A view, however, of the evils impending over the country, and, very probably, a conviction of sinister objects on both sides, broke his spirits. He would frequently sit abstracted among his friends, and, sighing deeply, exclaim, "Peace, peace!" and exhibit every sign of grief and anxiety. His closing scene almost proves a determination to die in battle, as he volunteered his services at the battle of Newbury, without a command, and, putting himself in the front rank of lord Byron's regiment, was struck from his horse by a musket-shot, and was found, the next day, dead upon the field.---Such was the fate of lord Falkland, at the age of 34; and, while the universal praises which he has received are, doubtless, very much owing to the elaborate character drawn of him by his friend Clarendon, there can be no doubt of the strict integrity of his character and intentions. As a man of active talent, he claims little admiration, and was evidently framed for that life of studious retirement and mental culture in which he so much delighted. One of his sayings marks his taste and character-"I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy day." Lord Falkland left behind him several published speeches and pamphlets on political and theological subjects, as also a few poems. CARYATIDES; a kind of pillars, which represent the upper part of female bodies. The name is of Greek origin. The goddess Diana, who had a temple in Karyatis, a Peloponnesian city, was, for this reason, called Karyatis. In honor of her, virgins danced in a festive procession, on the feast of Karyatis, which suggested to architects the idea of adopting the image of virgins in a kind of column which ornamented the Pantheon. Thus Lessing explains the name and form of the Caryatides. Another explanation of the origin of Caryatides is the following: The inhabitants of Carya, a city of Peloponnesus, allied themselves with the barbarians in the Persian war. The Greeks, on the successful termination of that struggle, exterminated the males of Carya, and reduced all the women to slavery. The captives, as a further mark of infamy, were forbidden to lay aside the robes in which they had decorated the conquerors' triumph; and the architects of the time, to perpetuate the memory of the transaction, made statues representing these women in the servile office of supporting entablatures. (See Architecture, i. 340.) CASA, Giovanni della, an Italian poet and orator, of an ancient and noble family of Mugello, near Florence, was born 1503, studied at Bologna, Padua, Rome, and entered, as an ecclesiastic, into the service of the two cardinals Alessandro Farnese, the first of whom, in 1534, ascended the papal chair, under the name of Paul III. He rose through various offices in the church, till Paul IV made him his private secretary. He died probably in 1556. His most celebrated work is Galateo, ovvero de' Costumi, to which one, Degli uffizj, Communi tra gli Amici Superiori e Inferiort, forms a supplement. This last is a translation of his Latin treatise, De Officiis inter Potentiores et Tenuiores Amicos. The best and most complete edition of his works appeared at Venice, 1752, in 3 vols., 4to. CASANOVA, Francis, a painter famous for his battle-pieces, born at London, 1730, went, while a boy, to Venice, where he applied himself to the art of painting. He afterwards obtained admission into the academy in Dresden, and painted several pieces for the prince Condè. The spirit and liveliness of his coloring and execution cannot be surpassed. At the request of Catharine of Russia, he painted, in Vienna, a piece representing the victory of this princess over the Turks, which she afterwards put up in her palace. He was constantly occupied with his art, and died at Brühl, near Vienna, 1805.-His brother John, likewise a painter, was born 1729, at London; died, 1795, at Dresden, where he was professor and superintendent in the academy of painting, and had instructed many able pupils in his art. His work on the Ancient Monuments of Art, published in Italian, and also in German (Leipsic, 1771), is still in esteem. CASANOVA, John James de Seingalt; eldest brother of the preceding; born at Venice, 1725; known by his Memoirs as an original and gay-tempered man, who acted an interesting part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe. His various adventures are related by himself in a most entertaining manner. They were first published, in part, at Leipsic, 1826, in a German translation. The French original has since appeared. His father, Cajetan John James, a descendant of the Spanish family of Palafox, falling in love with a dancer, turned actor, but afterwards united himself with the daughter of a shoemaker, Fanosi, who followed the profession of her husband. James Casanova, their eldest son, received the rudiments of his education in Padua, and made rapid progress in the Latin language, as well as in the other branches of learning. His ardent temperament, early developed, soon, however, involved him in many adventures, that served to sharpen his observation, and enlarge his knowledge of human nature. He studied law, and, in his 16th year, wrote two dissertations; one, De Testamentis, the other on the question, Utrum Hebræi possint construere novas Synagogas. His talent for shining in society introduced him, at Venice, into the select circles, in which a refined but frivolous tone of manners prevailed. The patriarch of Venice gave him the inferior ordination, and his first sermon was received with general applause. But he failed in his second; and from this period commences his restless CASANOVA-LAS CASAS. career, in which he became entangled in a series of love adventures, that can be understood only from his memoirs. He is arrested in Venice, comes into personal contact with pope Benedict XIV at Rome, goes to Constantinople, is in the military service at Corfu, and, in short, visits all the principal cities of Europe, being continually connected with the highest personages, is followed and caressed, till at last he accompanies the count of Waldstein to Dux, in Bohemia, where he becomes his librarian. He died at Vienna, in 1803. The escape of Casanova from the lead prisons of Venice was managed with admirable address and ingenuity. He has left several works in Italian and French, which give proof of the great powers of this Proteus, though he was more at home in the bustling world than in the pursuits of learning. Of these may be mentioned Confutazione della Storia del Goberno Veneto d'Amelot de la Houssaie, divisa in tre Parti (Amsterdam, 1769); Istoria delle Turbulenze della Polonia dalla Morte di Elisabet Petrouna fino alla pace fra la Russia e la Porta Ottomana, in cui si trovano tutti gli Avenimenti Cagioni della Rivoluzione di quel Regno (Gratz, 1774, 3 vols.); Histoire de ma Fuite des Prisons de la Republique de Venise, qu' on appelle les Plombs (Prague, 1788). His memoirs are a mirror of the manners of his time. 551 ment; but Las Casas, still dissatisfied, remonstrated so warmly, that he was obliged to take refuge in a convent, from the rage of the planters. He again returned to Europe, and, on the accession of Charles V, in consequence of his representations, the council appointed a chief judge, to reëxamine the points of controversy between the partisans of Judian liberty and the colonists. Las Casas, by a singular inconsistency, in his zeal for the Indians, became the author of the slave-trade, by proposing to purchase Negroes from the Portuguese in Africa, to supply the planters with laborers, of the want of whom they complained; and this was unfortunately put into execution. He next applied for a grant of an unoccupied tract, in order to try his own plan with a new colony. This he at length obtained, and, with 200 persons, whom he persuaded to accompany him, landed at Porto Rico in 1521, but found that an expedition was advancing to ravage this very tract, and convey its inhabitants to Hispaniola as slaves. He endeavored in vain to prevent the threatened danger, and, with the few who still adhered to him, returned to Hispaniola to solicit succor. During his absence, the natives attacked the colonists with such success, that, in a short time, not a Spaniard remained in that part of South America. Las Casas, in despair at the failure of his project, retirCASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish ed to the Dominican convent at St. prelate, was born at Seville in 1474, and, Domingo, and assumed the habit of the in his 19th year, accompanied his father, order. Notwithstanding his retirement, who sailed with Columbus, to the West his zeal in the cause of the Indians did Indies. Five years afterwards, he return- not abate; and, being sent on a mission to ed to Spain, and, pursuing his studies, en- Spain, by a chapter of his order at Chiapa, tered the ecclesiastical order. He again in 1542, he pleaded their cause with his accompanied Columbus in his second pristine warmth, and composed his favoyage to Hispaniola, and, on the con- mous treatise Brevissima Relacion de la Dequest of Cuba, settled there, and distin- struccion des Indes, in which he exposed guished himself by his humane conduct the cruelties practised by the Spaniards. towards the oppressed natives, of whom His unremitting perseverance at length he became, in a manner, the patron. He obtained a new set of laws and regulations, set at liberty the Indians who had fallen by which the natives were greatly relievto his share in the division; and so much ed. In 1544, he returned to America as was he interested for them, that, in 1516, bishop of Chiapa, and continued there he went to Spain to lay a statement of until 1551, when he resigned his bishoptheir case before king Ferdinand, whose ric, and again returned to Spain. He death, at that time, prevented any meas- died at Madrid in 1556, in the 92d year ures for their redress. The regent, cardinal of his age. Besides the treatise aboveXimenes, however, appointed a commis- named, he was also the author of a treasion to examine circumstances upon the tise, in Latin, on the question “Whether spot, and to determine accordingly. Las sovereigns may in conscience, by virtue Casas was to accompany them, with the of any right, alienate their subjects from title of protector of the Indians. The their crown, and transfer them to the docommissioners found that it was impos- minion of any other lord ?" which difficult sible to liberate the Indians, and therefore question he treats with great freedom, endeavored to secure them humane treat- spirit and delicacy. He also composed 552 LAS CASAS-CASE-HARDENING. CASAUBON, Isaac de (commonly called Casaubonus), born Feb. 18, 1559, at Geneva, of a family from Dauphiny, was educated by his father, a clergyman. In his 9th year, he spoke Latin fluently. In his 19th year, he entered the university at Geneva, where he studied jurisprudence, theology, and the Oriental languages, and, in 1582, succeeded Portus as professor of the Greek language. He here married the daughter of Henry Stephens, and published, every year, editions of Greek and Latin authors, with critical notes and translations. In 1596, he accepted a professorship of Greek and belles-lettres at Montpellier, but held it only two years. Henry IV invited him to Paris. His religious principles (the same as those for which his father had left his country), the jealousy of the other professors, and perhaps his rather unyielding character, were the occasion of many unpleasant occurrences, for which, however, he was indemnified by the office of royal librarian. After the death of Henry IV, he followed sir Henry Wotton, envoy extraordinary from James I, to England, where he was received with distinction, had two benefices and a pension conferred on him, and died at London, July 1, 1614. He was buried in Westminster abbey. Casaubon was a liberal theologian, a man of extensive learning, a good translator, and an excellent critic. As a critic, he has commented on Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polybius, Theocritus, Strabo, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Athenæus, Pliny the Younger, &c. Nearly all the ancient classics are indebted to his valuable researches. His profound dissertation on the satirical poetry of the Greeks and the satire of the Romans (De Satyrica Græcorum Poësi et Romanorum Satyra) deserves particular praise. His theological writings are of less value. CASAUBON, Meric, son of the preceding, born at Geneva, 1599, likewise distinguished himself by his learning. He followed his father to England, and was nade doctor of divinity at Oxford. He filled successively several offices in the church, when the revolution, which brought Charles I to the scaffold, deprived him of his income. Still he rejected the proposal of Cromwell to write the history of his time, as also the invitation of queen Christina to live in Sweden. On the return of the Stuarts, he was rewarded for his loyalty by restoration to his office in the church, which he held till his death, 1671. His learning was various and ex tensive, but not so profound as his fa ther's. He published, besides his theological works, observations on several classic authors; e. g., Terence, Epictetus, Florus, Polybius, &c. CASCO BAY; a bay in Maine, between cape Elizabeth on W. S. W. and cape Small Point on E. N. E. Within these capes, which are about 20 miles apart, there are about 300 small islands; most of which are cultivated, and are much more productive than the main land on the coast of Maine. Portland harbor is on the W. side of the bay. Actio super CASE, ACTION UPON THE. causam is a general action, given for the redress of a wrong done any man without force, and not especially provided for by law, in order to have satisfaction for damage. This is called an action on the case, because the whole cause or case is set down in the writ; and there is no other action given in the case, except where the plaintiff has his choice to bring this or another action. This action lies in a variety of instances; as for words spoken or written, which affect a person's life, reputation, office or trade, or tend to his loss of preferment in marriage or service, or to his disinheritance, or which occasion him any particular damage. Action on the case likewise lies upon an assumpsit. (q. v.) It lies, also, in all instances wherein no general action could be framed; e. g., against carriers; against a common innkeeper, for goods stolen in his house; for deceit in contracts, bargains and sales; for neglect or malfeasance; for injuries done in commons; for malicious prosecution and false arrests ; against sheriffs, for default in executing writs, permitting escapes, &c.; for conspiracy, nuisances, &c. &c. CASE, in grammar. (See Language.) CASE-HARDENING is a process by which iron is superficially converted into steel, in such articles as require the toughness of the former, conjointly with the hardness of the latter substance. The articles intended for case-hardening are first manufactured in iron, and are then placed in an iron box, with vegetable or animal |