counted a great indignity, so the cutting off half their beards, which made them still more ridiculous, was a great addition to the affront, in a country where beards were held in such great veneration.

In the East, especially among the Arabs and Turks, the beard is even now reckoned the greatest ornament of a man, and is not trimmed or shaven, except in cases of extreme grief. With them a shaven beard is reputed to be more unsightly than the loss of a nose; and a man, who possesses a reverend beard, is in their opinion, incapable of acting dishonestly. If they wish to affirm any thing with peculiar solemnity, they swear by their beard; and when they express their good wishes for any one, they make use of the ensuing formulaGod preserve thy blessed beard! From these instances, which serve to elucidate many other passages of the Bible besides that above quoted, we may readily understand the full extent of the disgrace wantonly inflicted by the Ammonitish king, in cutting off half the beards of David's ambassadors. Niebuhr relates, that if any one cut off his beard, after having recited a fatha, or prayer, which is considered in the nature of a vow never to cut it off, he is liable to be severely punished, and also to become the laughing-stock of those who profess his faith. The same traveller has also recorded an instance of a modern Arab prince having treated a Persian envoy in the same manner as Hanun treated David's ambassadors, which brought a powerful army upon him in the year 1765. The not trimming of the beard was one of the indications by which the Jews expressed their mourning. (2 Sam. xix. 24.)

VI. Their legs were bare, and on the feet they wore sandals, or soles tied in various manners around the foot, which they pulled off on entering a sacred place (Josh. v. 15.), as the Mohammedans do to this day. It is also commonly observed in visits to great men; the sandals or slippers being pulled off at the door, and either left there or given to a servant to bear. It was customary among the Romans to lay aside their shoes when they went to a banquet. The servants took them off their masters' feet when they entered the house, and returned them when they departed to their own habitations. Among the Jews, when a guest arrived, he was immediately conducted into a room, the servants untied his sandals, and were employed in washing his feet from the defilement of mire and dust. (Gen. xviii. 4. xix. 2. xxiv. 32. Luke vii. 44.) As this was usually the office of the lowest order of servants, this well known custom will particularly illustrate two passages of sacred Scripture. Referring to this usage, the Baptist told those who were deputed from the Sanhedrin to interrogate him, whether he were the Messiah, who was then the object of universal expectation, that there came one after him whose shoe-latchet he was not worthy to stoop down to unloose (Luke iii. 16.); meaning, that the Messiah, who had now made his appearance among them, was a person of such dignity of nature and character, that he did not

1 Description de l'Arabie, p. 61.

2 Ibid.

deem himself worthy of performing for him the most humble and servile office. Another passage of Scripture, on which the knowledge of this custom sheds light and beauty, is that in which our Lord is represented as abruptly rising from the paschal supperstripping off his upper garment-girding himself with a towel, as the servants of those times were-pouring water into a basin, washing his disciples' feet (John xiii. 4, 5.), and wiping them with the towel he had tied about him. Proceeding in a regular order, when he came to Simon Peter, he said to him: Lord, thou shalt never wash my feet -you shall never debase and degrade yourself to perform to me such an office-the office of the meanest, lowest slave. After he had washed their feet, put on his clothes, and resumed his place at table, he then addressed himself to them. Do you know the instruction I intended to convey to you by this action? You honour me with the titles of your instructor and master, and the appellations are just, and due to my character. If I then your exalted instructor have demeaned myself to wash your feet, you ought in like manner to condescend to perform the humblest offices one to another. The language of this public figurative action, which thus taught them humility in the most amiable and condescending manner, would seal stronger impressions upon their minds than all the verbal instructions and didactic precepts which could have been inculcated.

VII. Although the garments antiently worn by the Jews were few in number, yet their ornaments were many, especially those worn by the women. The prophet Isaiah, when reproaching the daughters of Sion with their luxury and vanity, gives us a particular account of their female ornaments. (Isa. iii. 16-24.) The most remarkable were these: The frontal jewel, which, though it was fastened on their foreheads, yet hung down lower, whence it is called a nose-jewel. (ver. 21.) This is mentioned by Ezekiel. (xvi. 12.) The ear-ring was one of the love-tokens presented to Rebecca in the name of Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 22.): it was an ornament worn by the men as well as the women, as appears from Gen. xxxv. 4.1 and Exod. xxxii. 2.; and by other nations as well as the Jews, as is evident from Numb. xxxi. 50. and Judg. viii. 24. It should seem that this ornament had been heretofore used for idolatrous purposes, since Jacob, in the injunction which he gave to his household, commanded them to put away the strange gods that were in their hands, and the ear-rings that were in their ears. (Gen. XXXV. 2. 4.)

Another female ornament was a chain about the neck (Ezek. xvi.

1 It is probable that the ear-rings or jewels, worn by Jacob's household, had been consecrated to superstitious purposes, and worn perhaps as a kind of amulet. It appears that rings, whether on the ears or nose, were first superstitiously worn in honour of false gods, and probably of the sun, whose circular form they might be designed to represent. Maimonides mentions rings and vessels of this kind, with the image of the sun, moon, &c. impressed on them. These superstitious objects were concealed by Jacob in a place known only to himself. Grotius on Gen. xxxv. 4. Calmet's Dictionary, vol. ii. voce Ring.

11), which appears to have been used also by the men, as may be inferred from Prov. i. 9. This was a general ornament in all the eastern countries: thus Pharaoh is said to have put a chain of gold about Joseph's neck (Gen. xli. 42.); and Belshazzar did the same to Daniel (Dan. v. 29.): and it is mentioned with several other things as part of the Midianitish spoil. (Numb. xxxi. 50.) Further, the arms or wrists were adorned with bracelets: these are in the catalogue of the female ornaments used by the Jews (Ezek. xvi. 11.), and were part of Rebecca's present. They were also worn by men of any considerable figure, for we read of Judah's bracelets (Gen. xxxviii. 18.), and of those worn by Saul. (2 Sam. i. 10.) Lastly, the ring is noticed as an ornament for the finger. (Isa. iii. 21.) This is mentioned in the parable of the prodigal, where the father orders a ring for his returning son (Luke xv. 22.), and also by the apostle James. (ii. 2.) The compliment of a royal ring was a token that the person, to whom it was given, was invested with power and honour; thus Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it on Joseph's. (Gen. xli. 42.) And Ahashuerus plucked off his ring from his finger, and bestowed it on Haman (Esther iii. 10.), and afterwards on Mordecai. (chap. viii. 2.) We read in Exod. xxxviii. 8. of the women's looking-glasses, which were not made of what is now called glass, but of polished brass, otherwise these Jewish women could not have contributed them towards the making of the brazen laver, as is there mentioned. In later times, mirrors were made of other polished metal, which at best could only reflect a very obscure and imperfect image. Hence Saint Paul, in a very apt and beautiful simile, describes the defective and limited knowledge of the present state by that opaque and dim representation of objects which those mirrors exhibited. Now we see di' sToTrgov by means of a mirror, darkly; not through a glass, as in our version of 1 Cor. xiii. 12.; for telescopes, as every one knows, are a very late invention.

To the articles of apparel above enumerated there were also added tinkling ornaments about the feet. Most of these articles. of female apparel are still in use in the East. The East Indian women, who accompanied the Indo-Anglican army from India to Egypt, wore large rings in their noses, and silver cinctures about their ancles and wrists, their faces being painted above the eyebrows. In Persia and Arabia also it is well known that the women paint their faces and wear gold and silver rings about their ancles,

1 The Ecorrpov, or metallic mirror, is mentioned by the author of the apocryphal book of the Wisdom of Solomon (vii. 26.); who, speaking of wisdom, says that she is the brightness of the everlasting light and ΕΣΟΠΤΡΟΝ ακαλιδωτον the unspotted MIRROR of the power of God and the image of his goodness. The author, also, of the book of Ecclesiasticus, exhorting to put no trust in an enemy, says: Though he humble himself and go crouching, yet take good heed and beware of him; and thou shalt be unto him ὡς εκμεμαχης ΕΣΟΠΤΡΟΝ, as if thou hadst wiped a MIRROR, and thou shalt know that his RUST hath not altogether been wiped away. (Ecclus. xii. 11.) The mention of rust in this place manifestly indicates the metallic composition of the mirror; which is frequently mentioned in the antient classic writers. See particularly Anacreon, Ode zi. 3. and xx. 5, 6.

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which are full of little bells that tinkle as they walk or trip along. The licensed prostitutes whom Dr. Richardson saw at Gheneh (a large commercial town of Upper Egypt), were attired in a similar manner.2

It was a particular injunction of the Mosaic law that the women shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment. (Deut. xxii. 5.) This precaution was very necessary against the abuses which are the usual consequences of such disguises. For a woman drest in a man's clothes will not be restrained so readily by that modesty which is the peculiar ornament of her sex; and a man drest in a woman's habit may without fear and shame go into companies where, without this disguise, shame and fear would hinder his admittance, and prevent his appearing.

In hot countries, like a considerable part of Palestine, travellers inform us, that the greatest difference imaginable subsists between the complexions of the women. Those of any condition seldom go abroad, and are ever accustomed to be shaded from the sun, with the greatest attention. Their skin is, consequently, fair and beautiful. But women in the lower ranks of life, especially in the country, being from the nature of their employments more exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, are, in their complexions, remarkably tawny and swarthy. Under such circumstances, a high value would of course be set, by the eastern ladies, upon the fairness of their complexions, as a distinguishing mark of their superior quality, no less than as an enhancement of their beauty. We perceive therefore, how natural was the bride's self-abasing reflection in Cant. i. 5, 6. respecting her tawny complexion, (caused by exposure to servile employments,) among the fair daughters of Jerusalem; who, as attendants on a royal marriage, (we may suppose) were of the highest ranks.3

VIII. To change habits and wash one's clothes were ceremonies used by the Jews, in order to dispose them for some holy action which required particular purity. Jacob, after his return from Mesopotamia, required his household to change their garments, and go with him to sacrifice at Bethel. (Gen. xxxv. 2, 3.) Moses commanded the people to dispose themselves for the reception of the law by purifying and washing their clothes. (Exod. xix. 19.) On the other hand, the rending of one's clothes is an expression fre

1 Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. v. p. 320., 8vo. edit. Morier's Second Journey in Persia, p. 145. Ward's History, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. ii. pp. 329. 333.

2"This is the only place in Egypt, where we saw the women of the town decked out in all their finery. They were of all nations, and of all complexions, and regularly licensed, as in many parts of Europe, to exercise their profession Some of them were highly painted, and gorgeously attired with costly neck-laces, rings in their noses and in their ears, and bracelets on their wrists and arms They sat at the doors of their houses, and called on the passengers as they went by, in the same manner as we read in the book of Proverbs." [vi. 6—23.] (Richardson's Travels, vol. i. p. 260.) The same custom was observed by Pitts, a century before at Cairo. See his account of the Mahometans, p. 99. 3 Fry's Translation of the Song of Solomon, p. 36.

quently used in Scripture, as a token of the highest grief. Reuben was the first we read of, who, to denote his great sorrow for Joseph, rent his clothes (Gen. xxxvii. 29.); Jacob did the like (ver. 34.); and Ezra, to express the concern and uneasiness of his mind, and the apprehensions he entertained of the divine displeasure, on account of the people's unlawful marriages, is said to rend his garments and his mantle (Ezra ix. 3.); that is, both his inner and upper garment this was also an expression of indignation and holy zeal; the high-priest rent his clothes, pretending that our Saviour had spoken blasphemy. (Matt. xxvi. 65.) And so did the apostles, when the people intended to pay them divine honours. (Acts xiv. 14.)

The garments of mourning among the Jews were chiefly sackcloth and haircloth. The last sort was the usual clothing of the prophets, for they were continual penitents by profession: and therefore Zecha riah speaks of the rough garments of the false prophets, which they also wore to deceive. (Zech. xiii. 4.) Jacob was the first we read of that put sackcloth on his loins, as a token of mourning for Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 34.), signifying thereby that since he had lost his beloved son, he considered himself as reduced to the meanest and lowest condition of life.

IX. A prodigious number of sumptuous and magnificent habits was in antient times regarded as a necessary and indispensable part of their treasures. Horace, speaking of Lucullus (who had pillaged Asia, and first introduced Asiatic refinements among the Romans), says, that, some persons having waited upon him to request the loan of a hundred suits out of his wardrobe for the Roman stage, he exclaimed "A hundred suits! how is it possible for me to furnish such a number? However, I will look over them and send you what I have."-After some time, he writes a note, and tells them he had FIVE THOUSAND, to the whole or part of which they were welcome.1

This circumstance of amassing and ostentatiously displaying in wardrobes numerous and superb suits, as indispensable to the idea of wealth, and forming a principal part of the opulence of those times, will elucidate several passages of Scripture. The patriarch Job, speaking of riches in his time, says :-Though they heap up silver as the dust, and prepare raiment as the clay. (Job xxvii. 16.) Joseph gave his brethren changes of raiment, but to Benjamin he gave three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment. (Gen. xlv. 22.) In allusion to this custom our Lord when describing the short duration and perishing nature of earthly treasures, represents them as subject to the depredations of moth. Lay not up for yourselves TREASURES on earth where moth and rust do corrupt. (Matt. vi. 19.) The illustrious apostle of the Gentiles, when appealing to the integrity

1 Horat. Epist. lib. i. ep. 6. ver. 40-44.

2 Presenting garments is one of the modes of complimenting persons in the East. See several illustrative instances in Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. pp. 93, 94.