upon the waters: for thou shalt find it again, with increase, after many days. (Eccles. xi. 1.) And Isaiah, promising a time of peace and plenty, says-Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, and send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass. (Isa. xxxii. 20.)

In Egypt, such vegetable productions, as require more moisture than that which is produced by the inundation of the Nile, are refreshed by water drawn out of the river, and afterwards deposited in capacious cisterns. When, therefore, their various sorts of pulse, melons, sugar-canes, &c. all of which are commonly ploughed in rills, require to be refreshed, they strike out the plugs which are fixed in the bottom of the cisterns; whence the water, gushing out, is conducted from one rill to another by the gardener, who is always ready, as occasion requires, to stop and divert the torrent, by turning the earth against it by his foot, and at the same time opening, with his mattock, a new trench to receive it. This mode of imparting moisture and nourishment to a land, rarely, if ever, refreshed with rain, is often alluded to in the Scriptures, where it is made the distinguishing quality between Egypt and the land of Canaan. For the land, says Moses, whither thou goest in to posssess it, is not as the land of Egypt from whence ye came out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot as a garden of herbs: but the land, whither ye go to possess it, is a land of hills and valleys, and drinketh water of the rain of heaven. (Deut. xi. 10, 11.)1 This method of irrigation is alluded to in Psal. i. 3., where the good man is, compared to a fruitful tree, planted by the rivers of water

(PALGEY-MaYim), that is, the streams or divisions of the waters, meaning those which are turned on and off, as above mentioned, by the cultivator.2

III. In the first ages of the world, men were chiefly employed in digging and throwing up the earth with their own hands, but Noah advanced the art of husbandry (Gen. ix. 20.), and contrived fitter instruments for ploughing than were known before. This patriarch is called a man of the ground, but in our translation, a husbandman, on account of his improvements in agriculture, and his inventions for making the earth more tractable and fruitful. It was a curse upon the earth after the fall, that it should bring forth thorns and thistles: these obstructions were to be removed, which required much labour, and the ground was to be corrected by ploughing.

The earliest mention, made in the Old Testament of a plough, is in Deut. xxii. 10. where the Israelites are prohibited from ploughing with an ox and an ass together; a plain intimation, that it had been customary with the idolatrous nations of the East to do so. The plough appears to have been furnished with a share and coulter, probably not very unlike those which are now in use. (1 Sam. xiii. 20, 21. Isa. iv. 4. Joel iii. 10. Mich. iv. 3.) The intelligent traveller, Maundrell, in his Journey from Jerusalem 1 Dr. Shaw's Travels in Barbary, &c. vol. ii. pp. 266, 267.

Dr. A. Clarke on Psal. i. 3. See also Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. ii. p. 1.

to Aleppo, relates, that when he was near Jerusalem, he came to a certain place, where (says he) "the country people were every where at plough in the fields, in order to sow cotton: it was observable, that in ploughing, they used goads of an extraordinary size; upon measuring of several, I found them to be about eight feet long, and, at the bigger end, six inches in circumference. They were armed at the lesser end with a sharp prickle, for driving of the oxen, and at the other end, with a small spade, or paddle of iron, strong and massy, for cleansing the plough from the clay that incumbers it in working. May we not from hence conjecture, that it was with such a goad as one of these, that Shamgar made that prodigious slaughter related of him? I am confident that whoever should see one of these instruments, would judge it to be a weapon, not less fit, perhaps fitter, than a sword for such an execution: goads of this sort I saw always used hereabouts, and also in Syria; and the reason is, because the same single person both drives the oxen, and also holds and manages the plough; which makes it necessary to use such a goad as is above described, to avoid the incumbrance of two instruments."

The method of managing the ground, and preparing it for the seed, was much the same with the practice of the present times; for Jeremiah speaks of ploughing up the fallow ground (Jerem. iv. 3.), and Isaiah of harrowing or breaking up the clods (Isa. xxviii. 24.); but Moses, for wise reasons doubtless, gave a positive injunction, that they should not sow their fields with mingled seed.

The kinds of grain sowed by the Jews were fitches, cummin, wheat, barley, and rice (Isa. xxviii. 25.); there were three months between their sowing, and their first reaping, and four months to their full harvest; their barley harvest was at the passover, and their wheat harvest at the Pentecost. The reapers made use of sickles, and according to the present custom they filled their hands with the corn, and those that bound up the sheaves their bosom: there was a person set over the reapers (Ruth ii. 5.) to see that they did their work, that they had provision proper for them, and to pay them their wages: the Chaldees call him Rab, the master, the ruler, or governor of the reapers. Women were employed in reaping as well as the men, and such was the piety of antient times, that those who came into the field, saluted their labourers at work in this form, the Lord be with you! to which they answered, the Lord bless thee! (Ruth ii. 4.) The reapers were usually entertained above the rank of common servants, though in the time of Boaz we find nothing provided for them but bread and parched corn; and their sauce was vinegar (a kind of weak wine), which doubtless was very cooling in those hot countries. (Ruth ii. 14.) The poor were allowed the liberty of gleaning, though the land-owners were not bound to admit them immediately into the field as soon as the reapers had cut down

1 Maundrell's Travels, p. 110. In January, 1816, Mr. Buckingham observed similar goads in use, at Ras-el-Hin, in the vicinity of the modern town of Sour, which stands on the site of antient Tyre. Travels in Palestine, p. 57.

the corn and bound it up in sheaves, but when it was carried off: they might choose also among the poor, whom they thought most worthy, or most necessitous. The conclusion of the harvest, or carrying home the last load, was with the Jews a season of joyous festivity, and was celebrated with a harvest feast. (Psal. cxxvi. 6. Isa. ix. 3. xvi. 9, 10.) The corn, being cut and carried in waggons or carts (Numb. vii. 3-8. Isa. v. 8. xxviii. 27, 28. Amos ii. 13.), was either laid up in stacks (Exod. xxii. 6.) or barns (Matt. vi. 26. xiii. 30. Luke xiii. 18. 24.); and, when threshed out, was stored in granaries or garners. (Psal. xliv. 13. Matt. iii. 12.) David had storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages, and in the castles. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25.)

IV. After the grain was carried into the barn, the next concern was to thresh or beat the corn out of the ear, which process was performed in various ways. Sometimes it was done by horses (Isa. xxviii. 28.), and by oxen, that trod out the corn with their hoofs shod with brass. (Mich. iv. 12, 13.) This mode of threshing is expressly referred to by Hosea (x. 11.), and in the prohibition of Moses against muzzling the ox that treadeth out the corn (Deut. xxv. 4.), and it obtains in Persia1 and India2 to this day, where oxen are employed; as buffaloes are in Ceylon, asses in North Africa, and horses in Crim Tartary. Another mode of threshing was, by drawing a loaded cart with wheels, over the corn, backwards and forwards; so that the wheels running over it, forcibly shook out the grain (Isa. xxviii. 28.): but the most common mode appears to have been that which is in use in this country, viz. by flails. Thus the fitches are said to be beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod. In this manner Gideon and Araunah or Ornan threshed out their wheat (Judg. vi. 11. 1 Chron. xxi. 20.); for it is represented as their own personal action.

The threshing floors were places of great note among the antient Hebrews, particularly that of Araunah the Jebusite, which was the spot of ground chosen by king David on which to build the altar of God (2 Sam. xxiv. 25.), and this was the very place where the temple of Solomon was afterwards erected. (2 Chron. iii. 1.) These floors were covered at the top, to keep off the rain, but lay open on all sides, that the wind might come in freely, for the winnowing of the corn; which being done, they were shut up at night, with doors fitted to them, that if any body lay there, he might be kept warm, and the corn be secured from the danger of robbers (Ruth iii. 6.); the time of winnowing, or separating the corn from the chaff, was in the evening, when the heat of the day was over, and cool breezes began to rise; for this purpose, they had the same implements which are

1 Sir R. K. Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, &c. vol. ii. p. 90. 2 See Turner's Embassy to Thibet, p. 184.

3 Ward's History, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. ii. p. 320.; Dr. Davy's Travels in the Interior of Ceylon, p. 275. (London 1821.), where a threshing floor is delineated; Capt. Lyon's Tour in Mourzouk and Fezzan, p. 169.; Mrs. Holderness's Notes on the Crim Tartars, p. 97. (London, 1821.) See also Mr. Dodwell's Classical Tour in Greece, vol. ii. p. 10.

in common use; for Isaiah speaks of winnowing with the shovel, and with the fan (Isa. xxx. 24.), and God pronounces by his prophet Amos, that he will sift the house of Israel among all nations, like as corn is sifted in a sieve; yet shall not the least grain fall upon the earth. (Amos ix. 9.)

After the corn was thus threshed, it was dried either in the sun, or by a fire, or in a furnace. This is called parched corn (Levit. xxiii. 14. 1 Sam. xvii. 17. and xxv. 18.), and was sometimes used in this manner for food without any farther preparation, but generally the parching or drying it, was in order to make it more fit for grinding. This process was performed either in mortars or mills, both of which are mentioned in Numb. xi. 8. And Solomon speaks of the former, when he compares the braying of a fool in a mortar to the like practice used with wheat. (Prov. xxvii. 22.) But mills were chiefly employed for this purpose; and they were deemed of such use and necessity, that the Israelites were strictly forbidden to take the nether or upper mill-stone in pledge; the reason of which is added, because this was taking a man's life in pledge (Deut. xxiv. 6.), intimating that while the mill ceases to grind, people are in danger of being starved.

The grinding at mills was accounted an inferior sort of work, and therefore prisoners and captives were generally put to it. To this work Samson was set, while he was in the prison-house. (Judg. xvi. 21.) There hand-mills were usually kept, by which prisoners earned their living. (Lam. v. 13.) The expression in Isa. xlvii. 2.-Take the mill-stones and grind meal,-is part of the description of a slave. In Barbary, most families grind their wheat and barley at home, having two portable mill-stones for that purpose; the uppermost of which is turned round by a small handle of wood or iron, that is placed in the rim. When this stone is large, or expedition is required, a second person is called in to assist: and it is in that country usual for the women alone to be thus employed, who seat themselves over against each other with the mill-stones between them. This practice illustrates the propriety of the expression of sitting behind the mill (Exod. xi. 5.), and also the declaration of our Lord, that two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be taken and the other left. (Matt. xxiv. 41.) From Jer. xxv. 10. and Rev. xviii. 22., it appears that those who were occupied in grinding beguiled their laborious task by singing, as the Barbary women continue to do to this day.

The sacred poets derive many beautiful images from the rural and domestic economy of the Jews; and as the same pursuits were cherished and followed by the Jews during the manifestation of our Redeemer, it is natural to imagine that in the writings of Jews there must occur frequent allusions to the implements and arts of agriculture, and to those rustic occupations which in general formed the study and exercise of this nation. Hence the beautiful images

1 Dr. Shaw's Travels in Barbary, vol. i. p. 416.

and apt similitudes in the following passages. No one having put his hand to the PLOUGH and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God.-Ye are God's HUSBANDRY, or cultivated field. A workman, that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly DIVIDING2 the word of truth. Wherefore lay apart all filthiness and superfluity of naughtiness, and receive with meekness the ingrafted word. Whatsoever a man SOWETH, that shall he REAP: he that sowETH to the flesh-lives a sensual life, shall from the flesh REAP destruction, but he that SOWETH to the spirit,-lives a rational life,—shell from the spirit REAP everlasting life.-Consider the ravens, they sow not, neither do they REAP, or gather into barns, yet your heavenly Father feedeth them. -I am the good SHEPHERD, and know my SHEEP, and am known of mine. The sheep hear his voice, and he calleth his own sheep by name (John x. 3.); and leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him, for they know his voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will flee from him, for they know not the voice of strangers. (John x. 45.) -Fear not, LITTLE FLOCK, it is your Father's good pleasure to give you the kingdom. How strikingly is the parable of the sower, which, by seed, scattered promiscuously, and in every direction by an husbandman, and meeting a various fate according to the respective nature of the soil into which it fell, represents the different reception which Gospel doctrine would experience in the world, according to the different dispositions and principles of that mind into which it was admitted! He that soweth the GOOD SEED, is the son of man; the FIELD is the world; the GOOD SEED are the children of the kingdom; the TARES are the children of the wicked one; the enemy that SOWED them is the devil; the HARVEST is the end of the world; and the RFAPERS are the angels. As therefore the TARES are gathered and burnt in the fire, so shall it be in the end of the world.—Whose FAN is in his hand, and he will thoroughly PURGE his FLOOR, and GATHER his WHEAT into the GARNER, but he will BURN UP the CHAFF with UNQUENCHABLE FIRE. By what an apt and awful similitude does St. Paul represent God's rejection of the Jews and admission of the heathens, by the boughs of an olive being lopped off, and the scion of a young olive ingrafted into the old tree (Romans

Θεου γεωργιον.

1 1 Cor. iii. 9. 2 2 Tim. ii. 15. (Epyarmy ondoropovvra.) A beautiful and expressive image taken from a husbandman (pyarns) drawing his furrow even, and cutting the ground in

a direct line.

3 He calleth his own sheep by name. By this allusion it appears that it was customary for the Jewish shepherds to give their sheep particular names, as we do our horses, cows, dogs, &c.

4 Polybius, speaking of the flocks in the island of Cyrmon, notices a practice which illustrates in a very striking manner the allusion of our Saviour. When any strangers land there, in order to lay hold of them, the sheep immediately run away: but when the shepherd blows his horn, they immediately run towards it Nor, adds the historian, is it at all wonderful that they should thus obey the sound, since, in Italy, the keepers of swine do not observe the custom of Greece in following their herd; but, going before them to some distance, they sound their horn, and the herd immediately follow them, flocking to the sound; and so accustomed are they to their own horn, as to excite no little astonishment at the first hearing of it. Polybius, lib. xiv. pp. 654, 655. Hanoviæ, 1619.