are sometimes terminated by dihedral summits, and also have their acute lateral edges truncated, besides presenting various other partial modifications. Cleavage takes place readily, parallel with all the faces of the primary figure; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous, sometimes, also, a little to pearly, upon the lateral faces of the prism; color white, passing to sky and smalt-blue; also reddish-white; transparent or translucent; brittle; hardness between calcareous spar and fluor; specific gravity 3.8. Besides occurring in perfect crystals, celestine is found in broad, oliated, in columnar and fibrous masses, as well as compact; the latter, however, appears to be a mixture of celestine and common limestone. It is composed of strontites 56, and sulphuric acid 42. Before the blow-pipe, it decrepitates and melts, without perceptibly coloring the flame, into a white, friable enamel. Reduced to powder, it phosphoresces upon red-hot iron. Celestine is most commonly found in kidney-shaped masses, disseminated through the more recent limestones, sandstones and amygdaloidal rocks. It also occurs in gypsum rocks, along with marl. Beautiful crystals, of a prismatic form and massive columnar varieties, occur in the sulphur mines of Sicily; also, under the same circumstances, at Bex, in Switzerland, and near Cadiz, in Spain. Tabular crystals and lamellar masses are found at Monte Viale, and in the Bristol channel, in England. But the most magnificent crystals come from Strontian island, in lake Erie. Handsome blue foliated specimens are also found at Lockport, in New York. It is also found in several other countries.-2. Strontianite is found regularly crystallized in the form of six-sided prisms, modified on the edges, and terminated in a pyramid. It affords, on cleavage, a right rhombic prism for its primary form, whose angles are 117° 32′ and 62° 28'. But regular crystals are very uncommon. Lustre vitreous, slightly inclining to resinous; color asparagus or apple-green, pale yellowish-brown, yellow and gray; white; streak white; transparent or translucent; hardness intermediate between calc-spar and fluor; specific gravity 3.6. Strontianite is found, for the most part, in fibrous masses, the fibres slightly diverging. It is composed of

It is soluble with effervescence in the muriatic and nitric acids; and paper dipped into this solution, and afterwards dried, will burn with a red flame. It melts before the blow-pipe, and intumesces, at the same time phosphorescing with a red light. It is dissolved by borax, with a violent effervescence, into a clear globule. Strontianite occurs in metallic veins, traversing primitive and transition mountains. It is found at Strontian, in Scotland; at Bräunsdorf, in Saxony; at Leogang, in Salzburg; and also in Peru.

STROPHADES; four small, rocky islands in the Mediterranean, west of the Peloponnesus; according to the ancient poets, the residence of the Harpies. The largest abounds in olives and other fruits, and produces a little corn, hardly sufficient for its few inhabitants; 26 miles south of Zante; lon. 21° 12′ E.; lat. 37° 29′ N.

STROPHE (from the Greek po4n, from row, I turn); a systematic union of several verses. According to the prevailing metre in the verses, strophes are called alcaic, Asclepiadaan, &c. The dithyrambus with the Greeks was confined to no precise rhythm, and rolled along without any division into strophes But the hymns and choruses, with which the tragedies were interspersed, consisted mostly of long stropues and anustrophes, of uniform measure, with which, also, sometimes alternated pro-odes, mesodes, or epodes, of various measure. The single verses of such poems, considered

as

mere members of strophes, were called cola. As the length of the verses is determined by the number of feet, so the length of strophes is determined by the number of cola. Monocola are lyric poems, in which verse of a uniform character is used, without division into strophes. Dicola are poems in which the strophes contain verses of but two different kinds. Sometimes these verses interchange in equal number: sometimes two or three verses of the same kind are followed by one of a shorter measure. So there are tricola, tetracola, &c. The system of strophes, antistrophes, &c., appears to be most developed in the dramatic choruses of the Greeks. The singing of the strophes on the stage, was accompanied with a motion or turn from right to left, towards the images of the gods placed on the sides of the orchestra (in the ancient sense of this word); but the singing of the antistrophe, with a contrary motion, from the left to the right; hence the appellations of strophe and

antistrophe, which seem to have been given to these performances of the dramatic chorus alone, as ode and antode were applied to the song, unaccompanied with mimic representations. The chorus, originally consisting of fifty persons, but, by degrees, reduced to fifteen, was sometimes divided, for the purpose of singing the strophe and antistrophe, into two semi-choruses. In the epode, these were again united. The motions were those of a rhythmic dance, and therefore accompanied by flutes, by which the movement of the verse and that of the dancers were made to harmonize, as appears from the circumstance that the leader of the chorus beat, or indicated time, with shoes, the soles of which were covered with iron.

STROZZI, Philip, a celebrated Florentine patriot, one of the richest citizens of Florence in the early part of the sixteenth century, was allied by marriage with the Medici, but was too much attached to the ancient republican constitution to acquiesce in the domination of that house. When the sovereignty was assumed by Alessandro de' Medici, he joined the party which aimed at restoring a free government. Their application for support, to the emperor Charles V, being unattended to, Strozzi induced Lorenzo de' Medici to assassinate the duke. The only result of this action was the immediate succession of Cosino, whom he opposed at the head of a body of troops; but, being defeated at the battle of Marona, he was made prisoner. Apprehending that he should be put to the torture, to force a disclosure of his accomplices, he anticipated the trial by a voluntary death, with a poniard. Having first traced, with the point of it, the line from Virgil-Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor! he pierced his breast, and immediately expired (1538).

STRUENSEE and BRANDT. John Frederic, count of Struensee, born at Halle, in 1737, after having completed his medical studies, entered upon the practice of physic at Altona, where he formed an acquaintance with the count of RantzauAschberg and Brandt. In 1768, he received the appointment of physician to Christian VII, king of Denmark, whom he accompanied on his travels through Germany, England and France. After Christian's marriage with Caroline Matilda (q. v.), a coolness arose between the royal pair, of which the queen-dowager took advantage to promote the interests of her son, Christian's half brother. The

birth of a crown prince, the present king of Denmark (see Frederic VI), widened the breach between Caroline and the queendowager, without reconciling Christian to his wife. The nation was divided into two great parties-that of the king, at the head of which was the young count Holk, the royal favorite, and that of the queen-dowager, at Friedensburg. Caroline Matilda aimed at effecting the removal of Holk, with the hope of regaining the king's favor, while Holk endeavored to increase the distance between her and the king. Thinking Struensee to be as warmly opposed to the queen as he was himself, he advised Christian to employ him in his messages to the queen. But this proved the ruin of Holk: the king became more and more attached to Struensee, and the queen, who observed the change, and contrasted the respectful deportment of Struensee with the arrogance of the favorite, soon admitted him to her confidence; and he effected a reconciliation between her and the king. Struensee now pursued his ambitious plans with redoubled zeal. Bernstorf (q. v.) was removed; Brandt succeeded Holk as director of the theatre and maître des plaisirs, and the friends of the queen were brought into office. To secure his influence, Struensee endeavored to occupy the king with amusements, and particularly to prevent him from communicating directly with his ministers. In 1770, at the instigation of Struensee, the king abolished the council of state, establishing, in place of it, a committee of conference, consisting of the heads of the different departments of the administration, who were only occasionally assembled, and had neither rank nor influence. This measure threw all authority into the hands of the queen and the favorite, and roused the indignation of the Danish nobility, which had enjoyed a seat and vote in the council. Struensee next procured the removal of the old ministers; and all affairs were now administered in the name of the king, by his personal attendants. But the favorite had neither prudence nor firmness to support him in this situation. He became overbearing and impatient of contradiction, and his attempts to introduce reformations in the finances, the army, law, &c., raised him up many enemies. He now caused himself to be created count, and, not satisfied with this, procured the dignity of cabinet-minister, with such powers as no Danish minister had ever before possessed. When his enemies attempted to expose

his usurpations, the freedom of the press, which he had himself introduced, was subjected to restrictions. But the friends of Struensee were already becoming indisposed towards him, and the people began to show symptoms of dissatisfaction. Struensee was conscious of his danger, and took some precautions to defend himself. But on the night of Jan. 16, 1772, the queen, the favorite, Brandt, and their other partisans, were seized. The officer who commanded the guard (an old enemy of Struensee) had led his officers into the palace, declaring that the king had commanded him to arrest the queen. Count Rantzau-Aschberg then penetrated to the chamber of the king, waked him, and told him that his life was in danger, and that he must sign an order which the count presented to him. The feeble king obeyed, and the queen was conducted to Kronenburg. An extraordinary commission was instituted for the trial of Struensee, consisting in part of his personal enemies. The proceedings were pushed with severity; and, on the 25th of April, he was condemned to lose his right hand and his head, his body to be quartered and exposed upon the wheel, and his head and hand to be stuck upon a stake. When informed that the king had confirmed the sentence, he received the news with composure, and was executed on the 28th of April, 1772.-See Höst's Count Struensee and his Ministry (in Danish, 1824, and more complete in German, 1826), and Mémoires de Falkenskiold (Paris, 1826).

STRUTT, Joseph, an English antiquary, born, in 1749, at Springfield, in Essex, was articled to an engraver, and obtained the gold and silver medals of the royal academy. He published, in 1773, his work entitled the Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England (4to.), containing representations of the English monarchs from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. This was followed by Horda Angel Cynnan, or a complete view of the manners, customs, arms, habits, &c., of the English from the arrival of the Saxons to the times of Henry VIII, &c. (1774, 1775 and 1776, 3 vols., with 157 plates). In 1777 and 1778, he published a Chronicle of England, which he meant to extend to six volumes, but dropped the design for want of encouragement. His Biographical Dictionary of Engravers appeared in 1785 and 1786, in two volumes, and his Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England, &c., in 1796 and 1799 (4to.). In 1801, he

published his last and favorite work, entitled the Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (with forty plates, new octavo edition, with 140 plates, 1827). He died in London, in October, 1802, aged fifty-three. His modest character scarcely met, during his life-time, with the encouragement it deserved. He left some manuscripts, from which have since been published his Queen Hoo Hall, a romance, and Ancient Times, a drama (4 vols., 12mo.); also the Test of Guilt, or Traits of Ancient Superstition, a dramatic tale.

STRYCHNIA; a vegetable alkali, found in the fruit of two species of the strychnos. It is obtained by the following process: The bean is rasped down as small as possible, and exposed to the action of nitric ether in a Papin's digester. What remains after the digestion is treated with alcohol, and the alcohol is evaporated to dryness, and the residue dissolved in water. To the aqueous solution potash is added, which throws down the strychnia in the form of a white crystalline precipitate. This alkali has also been extracted from the upas poison. The properties of strychnia, in a state of perfect purity, are as follows: It has a crystalline structure (often presenting four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids), is of a white color, has an intolerably bitter taste, and leaves a metallic impression in the mouth; it is destitute of odor, and is not altered by exposure to the air; it is neither fusible nor volatile, except at temperatures at which it undergoes decomposition. It is very little soluble in cold water, 100,000 parts of that liquid dissolving only fifteen parts of the alkali; but it dissolves in 2500 times its weight of boiling water. When it is introduced into the stomach, it acts with prodigious energy. A locked jaw is induced in a very short time, and the animal is speedily destroyed. Half a grain of strychnia blown into the throat of a rabbit, proved fatal in five minutes, and brought on locked jaw in two minutes. A great variety of salts of this alkali may be obtained by treating it with the different acids, and by double decomposition.--Sulphate of strychnia crystallizes in cubes, and is soluble in less than ten times its weight of cold water. It consists of sulphuric acid 90.5 and strychnia 9.5. Muriate of strychnia crystallizes in very small needles, and is more soluble in water than the sulphate. trate of strychnia acts with more violence upon animals than the pure all ali. Solutions of the salts of strychnia, when

Ni

exposed to a heat of 212°, become volatile.

STRYPE, John, a voluminous contributor to English ecclesiastical history and biography, was born in 1643, and educated at St. Paul's school, whence, in 1661, he was removed to Jesus college, and afterwards to Catharine hall, Cambridge. He graduated M. A. in 1666, and, taking orders, was nominated to the perpetual curacy of Theydon Boys, in Essex. His works are, Ecclesiastical Monuments (in 3 vols., folio); Annals of the Reformation (4 vols., folio, 1709-1731); an augmented edition of Stow's Survey of London (in 2 vols., folio, 1720); and Lives of Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgift, sir John Cheke, sir Thomas Smith, and bishop Aylmer. He was for many years rector of Hackney, in which he spent the latter part of his life, which was prolonged to the age of ninety-four.

STUART. The Stuart or Stewart family was descended from the great AngloNorman family of Fitz Alan, in England. The dignity of seneschal or steward of the king's household having become hereditary in a branch of this family, settled in Scotland, the title was converted into a surname. Walter, the sixth high steward, married Marjory, daughter of Robert (see Bruce, Robert); and, on the extinction of the male line of Bruce, Robert Stewart, their only son,ascended the Scottish throne (1371) under the title of Robert II. His grandson, James I (q. v.), was murdered in his bed, in 1437. His successors were James II, killed in a war with England (1460); James III, who fell in battle against his rebellious subjects (1488); James IV, who perished fighting against the English (1513); James V (q. v.), died of chagrin on account of the rebellion of his subjects. His last words were, on hearing of the birth of his daughter Mary, "God's will be done. It came with a lass; it will go with a lass,"-alluding to the crown, which had come into his family by marriage. That daughter (see Mary Stuart) perished on the scaffold, and her son James VI (I of England) united the crowns of England and Scotland (1603). James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II, Mary and Anne (see the articles) wore the double crown of the two kingdoms until 1714, 343 years from the period when the family ascended the Scottish throne, and 111 from the time of its accession to that of England. James II was deposed in 1688, and his son James Edward (see Stuart, James Edward), who styled himself James III, died in exile,

after ineffectual attempts to regain tne throne of his ancestors. James III's son, Charles Edward (see Edward, Charles), died childless, in 1788. His only brother, Henry, cardinal of York, died in 1807, and with him the house of Stuart became extinct.

STUART, John; earl of Bute. (See Bute.) STUART, Arabella. (See Arabella Stuart.)

were

STUART, James Edward Francis; the eldest son of James II, by his second wife, Mary of Modena, born in London, June 10, 1688. He was but five months old when his father was dethroned; and his mother, with her infant, fled to France, where Louis XIV afforded an asylum to the exiled family at St. Germains. (See James II.) An attempt was made at the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, to ensure the restoration of this young prince to the throne of his ancestors, which was defeated only by the opposition of his father-as William III had agreed to procure the recognition of the prince of Wales, as he was styled, as his successor; but James II rejected the proposal, observing that he could support with resignation the usurpation of his son-in-law, but he could not suffer his son to become a party to it. On the death of the ex-king, in 1701, Louis XIV recognised his son as king of England, by the title of James III, and a proclamation, in the name of the latter, was addressed to the English nation; but no effective measures adopted in his favor. The death of William III (q. v.) revived the hopes of his party; but nothing beyond unavailing negotiation took place till 1708, when a maritime expedition against Scotland was fitted out, in which the prince embarked, under the command of the chevalier Forbin. This armament, however, being attacked by an English fleet of superior force, returned to France without landing the invading forces; and the young adventurer (who assumed the name of the chevalier de St. George) joined the French army in Flanders, and distinguished himself by his valor at the battle of Malplaquet. In the latter part of the reign of Anne, repeated intrigues were set on foot to secure the restoration of her brother, or his succession to the crown after her death; but they proved entirely abortive, and, on the treaty of Utrecht taking place, in 1713, he was obliged to submit to a temporary retirement from France; and when he returned to Paris, he resided there incognito. Had not the decease of queen Anne been speedily followed by

that of Louis XIV, in 1715, the invasion of Scotland by the Pretender, as he was called, might have led to a very different result from that which actually took place. (See Anne.) The regent duke of Orleans wished to maintain peace with George I, and the British ambassador at Paris was informed of the projects of the chevalier de St. George by the abbé Strickland, one of his agents, who betrayed his confidence. The earl of Mar, in Scotland, raised the standard of revolt against the house of Hanover, proclaiming the heir of the Stuarts king, under the title of James III; and the latter, embarking at Dunkirk, made a descent on the Scottish coasts; but he soon perceived that success was hopeless, and was obliged to return to France. Even that kingdom no longer yielded him an asylum, and he was forced to remove, first to Avignon, and then to Rome. In consequence of the disputes which occurred between the duke of Orleans and cardinal Alberoni, the prince was, a few years after, invited to Spain, where he was well received by Philip V; but the visit had no important influence on his affairs, and Rome again became his retreat, as it was his future residence. In 1720, he married the princess Mary Casimira Sobieska, grand-daughter of the famous John Sobieski, king of Poland. This union was not attended with domestic happiness, and a separation between the husband and wife was with difficulty prevented by the interference of cardinal Alberoni, then a resident at Rome. He took no active part in the expedition against Scotland, under his son, in 1745; and the latter part of his life was dedicated to exercises of piety. He died Jan. 2, 1766.

STUART, Charles Edward. (See Edward, Charles.)

STUART, Henry Benedict Maria Clement, cardinal of York, younger son of James Edward, and the last descendant of the royal line of the Stuarts, was born at Rome, in 1725, and, being destined for the church, the pope bestowed on him the right to hold benefices without receiving the ecclesiastical tonsure. In 1745, when the last effort was made for the restoration of his family, he assumed the command of troops assembled at Dunkirk, to aid the operations of his brother in Great Britain; but the news of the battle of Culloden prevented the embarkation of this armament, and prince Henry returned to Rome. The visions of regal splendor, in which he might have indulged, being thus dissipated, he took holy orders,

and, in 1747, pope Benedict XIV raised him to the purple. He was subsequently made chancellor of the basilica of St. Peter, and bishop of Frascati. On the death of his brother, in 1788, he assumed the barren title to which the family had aspired, and caused a medal to be struck, with the inscription, Henricus Nonus Angliæ Rex, and on the obverse, Gratia Dei, non Voluntate Hominum. When the French conquered Italy, he was obliged to flee to Venice, and was indebted for his support to a pension from the English court. His death took place in 1807. The valuable papers of his grandfather and his father, which had remained in his possession, were, after his decease, sent to England.

STUART, doctor Gilbert, an eminent historical writer, born at Edinburgh, in 1742, was educated in the university of that city, where his father was professor of humanity, and was destined for the legal profession, which he relinquished for that of an author. In 1767, he published an Historical Dissertation concerning the Antiquity of the British Constitution, the merit of which procured him the degree of LL.D. This was followed, a few years after, by his View of Society in Europe, in its Progress from Rudeness to Refinement. Being disappointed in an attempt to obtain the professorship of public law in the university of Edinburgh, he removed to London; and, from 1768 to 1774, he was a contributor to the Monthly Review. He then returned to his native city, and established the Edinburgh Magazine and Review; but his illiberal and virulent criticisms ruined the credit of the work, which was discontinued in 1776. About this time,he published his Observations concerning the Public Law and Constitutional History of Scotland (8vo.); the History of the Reformation in Scotland (1780, 4to.); and the History of Scotland (1782, 2 vols.). In the year last mentioned, he again repaired to London, and engaged as a writer; but habits of intemperance had undermined his constitution, and he once more returned to his native place, where he died in 1786. His works display erudition, industry and sound judgment, wherever the latter quality is not influenced by his jealousy and hatred of contemporary writers.

STUART, James; a distinguished antiquary and architectural draughtsman, born in London, in 1713. His father having died when he was young, he assisted his mother by practising fan-paintingPrompted by his inclination, he studied.