anatomy, geometry, and other branches of science; and, having, by his industry, provided for the support of his younger brother and sister, set out, with a very small supply of money, for Rome. He supported himself during his travels by the exercise of his talents, and at Rome made acquaintance with Nicholas Revett, a skilful architect, with whom he went to Athens, in 1751. Here they remained till the latter part of 1753, making drawings and taking measurements of architectural relics. After visiting Salonica, Smyrna, and some of the Egean islands, they returned to England, in the beginning of 1755. The result of their labors appeared in the work entitled the Antiquities of Athens (1st vol. 1762, folio; 4th vol. 1816). A new and improved edition of this valuable work has recently been published. Stuart died in 1788. STUCCO (Italian) in architecture; a composition of white marble pulverized and mixed with plaster of lime, which, being sifted and wrought up with water, is used like common plaster. Architectural and sculptural ornaments, such as fruits, flowers, garlands, festoons, &c., are made of it. In the interior of buildings, stucco work is generally applied to the ceilings of apartments, the mouldings, &c. On the exterior, it should be confined to those parts which are not much exposed to the rain. In some countries, a stucco of common mortar and of plaster is applied to the outside of houses, and is extremely durable. Vitruvius seems to mention stucco in the second, third and sixth chapters of the seventh book, under the name of opus albarium, or opus coronarium. Immediately after the stucco is mixed, it forms a very soft and ductile paste, which, however, soon hardens, and then the desired form is given to it with moulds or with a little spatula of iron. During this operation, it continues to harden, and may even be cut; and at this period, those parts of the ornaments are executed which demand a nice finish. In a few days, it acquires the consistence of dry clay, and ultimately becomes hard like stone, and takes a beautiful polish. STUDDING-SAILS; certain sails extended, in moderate and steady breezes, beyond the skirts of the principal sails, where they appear as wings to the yard-arms. The top-mast and top-gallant studdingsails are those which are set on the outside of the top-sails and top-gallant sails. STUDIES. (See Drawing.) STUFF, in commerce, is a general name for all kinds of fabrics of gold, silver, silk, wool, hair, cotton, or thread, manufactured on the loom; of which number are velvets, brocades, mohair, taffeties, cloth, serges, &c. The term is also used more particularly to denote slight woollen articles used principally for linings and women's apparel. STUHLWEISSENBURG; or, in Hungarian, SZEKES FEJERVAR; in Sclavonic, BIELIGRAD; a royal free town of Hungary, capital of a county of the same name, thirty miles south-west of Buda; lon. 18° 25 E.; lat. 47° 12′ N.; population, 12,244. It was built in the eleventh century, and, during five centuries, was the place where the kings of Hungary were crowned, and on that account called Alba Regalis. It is now declined from its former importance, and has a mean appearance, though it contains some good buildings. It has a Catholic gymnasium and some manufactures. STUм, in the wine trade, is a name for the unfermented juice of the grape, when it has been several times racked off and separated from the sediment. The casks are, for this purpose, well fumigated with brimstone, in order to prevent fermentation, through which the juice would become wine. STURDY, STAGGERS, GID, TURNSICK, GOGGLES, WORM UNDER The Horn, WaTERY HEAD, and PENDRO, are all popular names for hydatids, caused by an animal now known as the tanias globulus, which, by some unaccountable way, finds entrance into the brain of the sheep, and settles there, either in some of its ventricles, or more frequently in its substance. Their size varies from that of the smallest speck to that of a pigeon's egg; and the sheep attacked are generally under two years old. These animals are likewise occasionally found in all the natural cavities of the body. Stupidity, a disposition to sit on the rump, to turn to one side, &c., are the indications of this disease, which is not incurable, as has been supposed, but can be cured only by a manual operation-instruments are thrust through the skin and skull, or a wire through the nostrils, and the hydatid thus destroyed. The latter is called by the English shepherds wiring. It is always fatal, if not relieved by art. STURGEON (Acipenser). A genus of cartilaginous fishes, allied somewhat to the shark and ray, but differing essentially in structure, as well as in the habits of the species. The mouth is situated beneath the snout, is small, retractile, and destitute of teeth; there are several fleshy beards also beneath the snout, and anterior to the mouth; the body is massive, elongated, and furnished with several longitudinal rows of bony plates implanted in the skin; the gill openings are very large. The sturgeons inhabit the ocean, Mediterranean, Red, Black, and Caspian seas, and the Canadian lakes, keeping in inaccessible depths during the winter season, and in the spring ascending the larger rivers. The common sturgeon of Europe (A. sturio) is found in most of the large rivers of that continent, and sometimes is excessively multiplied in the more northern countries. Its flesh is delicate and well flavored, somewhat resembling veal, and has been esteemed in all ages; but modern nations do not consider it so great a luxury as the ancients, especially the Romans. Its fishery is an object of importance, and caviar is sometimes made of the eggs of the female. The singlass sturgeon, or beluga of the Russians (A. huso), is the largest species. It is not so extensively diffused as the former, and is chiefly found in the Black and Caspian seas, ascending the tributary streams in immense multitudes. It frequently attains the length of twenty or twenty-five feet; and individuals have been taken weighing nearly three thousand pounds. It enters the rivers in the middle of winter, while they are still covered with ice, is very voracious, and pursues all the smaller fishes, but feeds likewise on vegetables. The fishery of this species is vastly important in the south of Russia; and upwards of a hundred thousand are taken yearly. The caviar of commerce is chiefly made from its eggs, which exist in such abundance as to constitute nearly one third of the total weight. This is a very common aliment in Turkey, Russia, Germany, Italy, and especially in Greece, and forms an important article of commerce, very profitable to Russia. The flesh is white, fat, resembling veal, very wholesome, nutritious, and agreeably tasted. The isinglass of commerce is prepared from the air bladder. The fat is also agreeable to the taste, and may be used as a substitute for butter or oil. A kind of leather is made from the skin, and that of the young ones, cleaned and dried, is used for window-glass in some parts of Russia and Tartary. There are a few other species of sturgeon in the rivers of Europe. We have several sturgeons in the U. States, but their useful properties appear to be not yet fully appreciated: it is probable that, at some future day, they may become important, though not to the same extent as the European. The common round-nosed sturgeon of the Delaware and Hudson is the largest, attaining the length of ten feet. During the hot season, it is fond of leaping out of the water, forming a familiar and interesting spectacle. It is very troublesome to the shad fishermen, sometimes breaking their nets when enclosed. It is sometimes brought to the Philadelphia market; but the majority that are taken in the Delaware are left to rot along the shores. The short-nosed sturgeon (A. brevirostrum of Lesueur) is a small species, remarkable for the shortness of the head in proportion to its breadth. It grows to the length of about three feet, and inhabits the Delaware, but is rather rare. When taken, it is brought to the Philadelphia market, and commands a higher price than the large one; but it is eaten by the common people only.-The sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus) of Mitchell, distinguished by its long and somewhat acute snout, grows to the length of four feet and upwards. The skin is rough. It is found in the Delaware, but not so abundantly as in the Hudson. Probably this is the species which inhabits the Merrimack and the rivers of Maine. A. rubicundus (Les.) inhabits lakes Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Michigan. It grows to the length of four feet or more. The color is red, inclining to yellowish on the back, and to olivaceous on the sides. The Indians use it for food, and take it by means of a harpoon or dart, having a long line attached, in order to enable them to play the animal till exhausted. It is not sought after for the table, but, when taken by the fishermen in their seines, is occasionally salted down, as a substitute for more esteemed food. Travellers assert that it is good, palatable food. The same, or a variety, is found in the Ohio. A. maculosus (Les.) is a small species of a reddish olive color, with black spots, found in the Ohio. STURLASON, Snorro, a native of Iceland, of an old noble family, was born in 1179. He lived for a long time at the courts of Norway and Sweden, was at last lagmann of Iceland, and was murdered in 1241, in his castle. He was a man of great talents, and rendered himself famous as a poet, lawgiver, zealous republican, and historian. He composed a general history of the north, from the ancient songs of the scalds, and other historical sources, with taste, and a faithful use of his sources. His history is rich in information respecting Sweden and Iceland, somewhat less so in regard to Norway, and affords some notices respecting Russia. Its title is Heimskringla (i. e. Orbis Terrarum), edr. Noregs Konunga Soegor seu Historia Regum Septentrionalium a Snorrone Sturlonide conscriptæ, edited by John Peringskiold (Stockholm, 1697). A new edition, enlarged and corrected by G. Schöning and S. Th. Thorlacius, appeared in 3 vols., folio, at Copenhagen (1777—82). The continuation by Sturla Thoraldson (of Norway), and an unknown writer, is to be found in Christian Jakobi's Norvegia Monarchica et Christiana (Glückstadt, 1712, 4to.). (See our article Scandinavian Literature.) A long account of Snorro Sturlason is to be found in Wheaton's History of the Northmen, page 98 et seq. of the American edition. STUTTERING, STAMMERING, OF HESITATION OF SPEECH, are terms implying an interrupted articulation, accompanied generally with more or less of straining and distortion of feature. If owing to a vicious conformation of the tongue, or other organ of speech, it is incurable; but when merely spasmodic, the cure is possible, and sometimes easy. In some cases, stuttering is relievable at once, by avoiding carefully the usual hurried repetition of the same syllable, or by opening the mouth, and allowing simple sound to pass, when any one oral position threatens to become spasmodically permanent. Should it arise from the attempt to speak being made while drawing in the breath, it may be avoided by filling the chest well before beginning to speak. A scale of articulate sounds, or table of articulations, with minute directions as to the proper position of the organs in producing the different sounds, may, likewise, in some instances, prove useful to the patient. STUTTGARD, or STUTTGART; capital of the kingdom of Würtemberg, on the small river Nesenbach; lon. 9° 11' E.; lat. 48° 46′ N.; thirty-five miles southeast of Carlsruhe, one hundred and sixteen north-west of Munich; population in 1827, 22,000; with the military and strangers, 31,330. It is situated in a valley, two miles from the Neckar, and is divided into three parts, the town proper, two suburbs adjacent to each other, and a separate suburb, called Esslingen, The town proper is badly built, the streets being narrow, and the houses frequently of wood: the suburbs have a better appearance, particularly that of Esslingen, which contains the royal palace, gymnasium, barracks, and other public buildings. The palace is a noble structure, situated near an extensive park, and contains a good collection of paintings, statues, &c. The royal library contains 200,000 volumes, including 12,000 copies of the Bible of different editions. The town has a public library, an old palace, mint, town house, great church, and royal stables. Though surrounded by a wall and ditch, Stuttgard is a place of no strength. The manufactures are on a small scale; the expenditures of the court and nobility forming the chief support of the inhabitants. The surrounding country is fertile and delightful, consisting of eminences covered with vineyards, and valleys laid out in corn-fields. The Solitude, near Stuttgard, is a beautiful country residence of the sovereign. STYE (hordeolum); a little tumor on the eyelids, resembling a barley-corn. The stye is strictly only a little bile, which projects from the edge of the eyelids, mostly near the great angle of the eye. This little tumor is of a dark red color, much inflamed, and a great deal more painful than might be expected, considering its small size. The latter circumstance is partly owing to the vehemence of the inflammation producing the stye, and partly to the exquisite sensibility and tension of the skin, which covers the edge of the eyelids, On this account, the hordeolum very often excites fever and restlessness in delicate, irritable constitutions: it suppurates slowly and imperfectly; and, when suppurated, has no tendency to burst. The stye forms an exception to the general rule, that the best mode in which inflammatory swellings can end, is resolution; for, whenever it extends so deeply as to destroy any of the cellular substance, the little tumor can never be resolved, or only imperfectly so. This event, indeed, would rather be hurtful, since there would still remain behind a greater or smaller portion of dead cellular membrane, which, sooner or later, might bring on a renewal of the stye, in the same place as before, or else become converted into a hard, indolent body, deforming the edge of the eyelid. STYLE, from orvos, originally the instrument with which the ancients wrote on hard substances, came afterwards to signify the peculiar way of expressing a thought or idea in language or form. Thought strives for manifestation. Its most effectual instrument is language. The object of language is to give an accurate picture of the thoughts of the speaker to the person addressed. Hence it must vary with the character of the cussing the theory of style. It falls properly under the head of a disquisition on logic. Beauty of style consists in harmonious expression, an easy flow, and a happy connexion of ideas; in the avoidance of every thing which can offend good taste and decorum; in the use of imagery fitted to strike and gratify the imagination, &c. The two chief branches of style are those of prose and poetry. (See these articles.) The ancient rheto-. ricians speak of a genus dicendi tenue, medium, et sublime, or a lower, middle, and higher style. No work, however, necessarily falls, from beginning to end, under either of these heads. Style must sink or rise with the thoughts and feelings expressed. The various relations of life, and the various modes and subjects of communication, render the division of prose into various kinds of style necessary. Thus we have the didactic style, the style of business, the epistolary, the historical style, and the various oratorical styles. Style began early to be cultivated. Among the Greeks, who, however, confined themselves almost entirely to oratorical expression, Aristotle, Demetrius Phalereus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Hermogenes, and Longinus; among the Romans, Cicero and Quinctilian, are the principal writers on style. persons spoken to. It should always, however, be the natural product of a man's own mind; and when thoughts are fully matured, they can be easily expressed by one who has the riches of a cultivated language at his command. A style of expression which betrays the effect of imitation is always disagreeable; and the more so the more perfect is the imitation. It is body without spirit, the covering of the pupa without the butterfly within. The study of the style of others can be of advantage only as it shows the connexion between their thoughts and their manner of expression. The first requisite of a good style is clear and independent thought. Some have even considered it the only thing necessary; but this is going too far. There is a certain mechanical skill required, to find the best expression of a thought in a language which is the common means of communication among millions of people, all differing in character and circumstances; and it would be mere loss of time for every one to attempt to acquire this by his own experience, for which he may not have a good opportunity; but, unless it is acquired, even the most highly gifted intellects can produce but an imperfect effect. This circumstance, that we speak and write for others; that our expression, as far as regards ourselves, is the effect of thought, whilst, as respects others, it is intended to become the cause of thought, -is, perhaps, the chief reason for studying style. Still, however, we must repeat, that the most important means for becoming clear to others, is to be clear to ourselves. To excel in writing or speaking, as to excel in music, painting, architecture, mathematics, &c., original talent is the first thing necessary; yet study is indispensable, and without it, hardly any progress could be made in the various branches of human activity. The collected experience of many furnishes The effect of the naprinciples for a theory of style as well as tional character is particularly apparent in of every art; but this theory will be of certain arts, e. g. painting or music. The advantage only to him who has the main national style also has its periods; at one requisites of clear and just thought. One time aims particularly at the sublime or of the best general rules of style is to be great, at other times strives after the beauas brief as perspicuity allows; though tiful, the pleasing and graceful; as Winckthere are some exceptions, particularly in elmann has observed in respect to the the case of public speaking, in which it Greek plastic art. The style varies, too, is often necessary to dwell long on impor- with the character of the individual. tant ideas, in order to afford the hearer Here we must distinguish between the time to comprehend them fully. In style which proceeds from the nature of the writing, there are very few exceptions to subjects to which the genius of the artist the rule. Logical correctness of thought, inclines him, and his mode of representthough essential to a good style, does not ing those subjects. The latter is called need to be particularly treated of in dis- more particularly manner. The manner STYLE, in the arts. Style, or mode of representation, in the arts, depends on the character of the artist, the subjects, the art itself, the materials used, the object aimed at, &c. The style varies in different periods: thus we have the anteGreek, or old Oriental style, in which the powerful and colossal prevails; the classical or antique style of the Greeks and Romans (see Antique), and the style of Christian art (the romantic or modern style). It is influenced by differences of national character. Thus we have a German, Italian, French, and English style or school. of an artist may be noble or petty, strong or weak; but it is always uniform, and in a certain degree arbitrary, while the style, in its proper sense, is not. The style of great artists continues in their schools, and there usually degenerates into manner. The word style is also applied to the different modes of representation, occasioned by the different nature of the various arts: thus there is an architectural, a plastic, a picturesque style. The various branches of an art, too, have each its peculiar style; e. g. in poetry, there are the epic, lyric, dramatic styles; in music, the sacred, opera, concert styles, the vocal and instrumental styles, the quartetto, sonata, symphony styles, &c.; in painting, there are the historical, landscape, &c. styles. STYLE, OLD and NEW. (See Calendar, and Epoch.) STYLES OF ARCHITECTUre. chitecture, vol. i, page 339.) (See Ar STYLITES (from oruλos, column; in Latin, sancti columnares). The most singular saints of the Christian church were anchorites (q. v.), who, by way of penance, passed the greater part of their lives on the top of high columns. Simeon, a Syrian monk, of the fifth century, invented this insane method of self-torture, about 423. He lived, for nine years, on a column, the top of which was only two ells in circumference, in the open air, near Antioch, afterwards changed it for a higher one, and at length for one forty cubits, and only three feet in diameter at top; when he slept, he leaned against a sort of balustrade. On this pillar he remained twentyeight years, till his death, in 459 or 460. The whole time which he passed on the top of pillars, was about thirty-seven years. It appears, however, that he must have descended at times, since he cured the sick by his touch, and performed sundry other miracles; wrote epistles, and took part in political quarrels. The example of this strange being, who was canonized after his death, was imitated by many persons in Syria and Palestine; and the mania continued until the 12th century. The Dictionnaire de Théologie, a modern Catholic work, chiefly in defence of the Roman church, has a long article Stylite, vindicating St. Simeon, as an instrument in the hands of the Creator, for the conversion of the heathen. "Shall we refuse to God," says the writer, "the liberty of attaching the grace of conversion to such means as he may choose?" The article also relates the miracles of St. Simeon. STYMPHALIDES, in mythology; certain birds of prey, which derived their name from the town or the lake of Stymphalus, in Arcadia, near which they lived; or from an ancient hero Stymphalus, whose daughters they were considered to be. They were large birds, with iron wings, beaks and claws, of the size of cranes, in form similar to the ibis, but having straight beaks. They could shoot their feathers like arrows, and thus kill men and beasts. (See Argonauts.) Eurystheus imposed on Hercules the task of driving them from the place of their abode, in which he succeeded. STYMPHALUS. (See Stymphalides. STYPTIC; a remedy that has the virtue of stopping blood, or of closing the aperture of a wounded vessel. Many waters and powders are of this nature; but in most of them vitriol is the chief ingredient. STYRIA. (See Stiria.) STYX; a nymph, according to Hesiod, the daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, according to others, of Erebus and Night. By Pallas, she became the mother of Zelos and Cratos, Nike and Bia (Zeal, Power, Victory and Strength); according to Pausanias, she bore the Hydra to a certain Piras; and, according to Apollodorus, Proserpine to Jupiter. Her children, by Pallas (according to Hesiod), enjoyed the honor of living with Jupiter, and of being inseparably connected with him, because they and their mother assisted him in the war with the Titans. In honor of Styx herself, it was provided, that the gods should swear by her. According to another passage of Hesiod, Styx lived with her children in the region of Tartarus, in a palace of rocks, separated from the dwellings of the other deities residing there, or in a grotto resting on columns. From this rock issued a cold stream, which flowed far under the earth unseen. was the tenth arm of Ocean. Nine of them flowed around the earth, and the sea, and then emptied into the tenth, which (the Styx) descended to the lower regions, where it formed the celebrated Stygian pool. By this the gods swore; and if any god violated his oath, he was banished from Olympus, stretched out lifeless, and became overgrown with mould. In this state he remained a year; after which, he suffered other torments for nine years, and, during this period, was excluded from the society of the gods. Styx was originally a rivulet in Arcadia, springing from a high rock, near the town of Nonacris. Its water was considered poisonous to men and beasts⚫ metals It |