were corroded, and vessels burst to pieces by it. SUABIA, or SWABIA (in German, Schwaben); one of the ten circles into which the German empire was divided, previous to its dissolution in 1806. It lay in the southwestern part of Germany, comprising some of the most fertile and beautiful parts of the country, traversed from south-west to north-east by the Danube. The Black Forest (q. v.), or Schwarzwald, intersects the western part of the country, and the Suabian Alps (see Alps, Suabian) stretch through the interior. The circle of Suabia, comprising 13,150 square miles, with 2,200,000 inhabitants, was surrounded by France, Switzerland, the Austrian territories, Bavaria, Franconia, and the circles of the Rhine. The soil is fertile, the face of the country mountainous. The circle comprised the sovereign bishoprics of Augsburg and Constance, the princely provostship of Elwangen, and the princely abbey of Kempten; the abbeys of Salmansweiler, Weingarten, Ochsenhausen, Elchingen, Irsee, Ursperg, Kaisersheim, Roggenburg, Roth, Weissenau, Schussenried, Marchthal, Petershausen, Wettenhausen, Zweifalten and Gengenbach, Neresheim, Heggbach, Guttenzell, Rothmünster, Baindt, Söflingen, Isni, Lindau and Buchau; the duchy of Würtemberg; the margraviate of Baden; the principalities of Hohenzollern and Lichtenstein; the landgraviates of Klettgau, Stühlingen and Baar; the Teutonic commandery of Alschhausen; the counties (grafschaft) of Thengen, Heiligenberg, Ettingen, Friedberg-Scheer, Königsegg, Eberstein, Hohenems, Bondorf, Hohengeroldseck; the lands of the counts Fugger; the county and lordships of Truchsess of Waldburg; the lordships of Trochtelfingen, Jungnau, Wiesensteig, Hausen, Möskirch, Tetnang, with Argen, Mindelheim, Schwabeck, Gundelfingen, Justingen, Eglof, Tannhausen and Burg, with Neusickingen, and the thirty-one imperial free cities of Augsburg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Nördlingen, Hall, Ueberlingen, Rotweil, Heilbronu, Gemünd, Memmingen, Lindau, Dünkelsbühl, Biberach, Ravensburg, Kempten, Kaufbeuern, Weil, Wangen, Isny, Leutkirch, Wimpfen, Giengen, Pfullendorf, Buchhorn, Aalen, Bopfingen, Buchau, Offenburg, Gengenbach, Zell on the Hammersbach. these numerous sovereignties, the possessions of the Würtemberg, Baden and Fürstenberg houses were the most extensive. Würtemberg, Baden, the two Hohenzollern lines, and Lichtenstein, are the Of only ones that have not been mediatized. (See Mediatization.) The diets of the circle were commonly held at Ulm, and in time of peace twice a year. Austrian Suabia was composed of the hereditary states of the house of Hapsburg, comprising Burgau, Nellenburg, the prefectorate of Suabia, Hohenberg, the Brisgau, Ortenau, and some towns and convents, containing in all a population of about 170,000; but these have been renounced or exchanged. The kingdom of Würtemberg and the grand duchy of Baden comprise at present the greater part of Suabia. The kingdom of Bavaria includes a part on the east side; and other portions are subject to the princes of Hohenzollern and Lichtenstein. (See Pfister's History of Suabia, and Leichtlen's Suabia under the Romans (both in German). (See also our articles Germany, and Hohenstaufen.) į SUABIAN ALPS. (See Alps, Swabian.) SUABIAN POETS. (See Minnesingers.)| SUADA, or SUADELA; with the Greeks, Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, whose worship Theseus is said to have established at Athens, in memory of the union of the scattered population of Attica into one state. A statue of this goddess, made by Praxiteles, stood in Athens, in the temple of Aphrodite (Venus). She was represented as belonging, with the Graces, to the company of Venus. Some make Suada herself one of the Graces. SUARD, Jean Baptiste Anthony, a French miscellaneous writer, born at Besançon, in 1733, was the editor of the Journal de Paris. During the revolution, he conducted a publication entitled Nouvelles Politiques, which, professing to oppose democracy, was suppressed, and he was forced to quit France. When Bonaparte was first consul, he returned, and became member of the legion of honor, and of the national institute, and perpetual secretary of the class of French literature. He then established a journal called the Publiciste, which was soon given up for the Archives Littéraires, and the Opuscules Philosophiques. Suard was familiar with English literature, and translated Robertson's Charles V, and History of America, with several other English works. Many of the notices of Englishmen in the Biographie Universelle are from his pen. See Garat's Mémoires historiques sur Suard (1820). He died at Paris in 1817. SUBHASTATIO, in the civil law, is the public sale of immovable property, to the highest bidder, as auction, in that law, is the sale of mobilia, or personal property. The jus primi liciti in some countries, al lows the first bidder at an auction sale to take the article at the highest price hid; but he must declare his intention before the haminer falls. The name subhastatio originated from the Roman usage of planting a spear (hasta) on the spot where a public sale was to take place. of volatile ones; thus iron is carried over by sal ammoniac, in the preparation of the flores martiales, or ferrum ammoniatum. The fumes of solid bodies in close vessels rise but a little way, and adhere to that part of the vessel where they concrete. SUBLIME PORTE. (See Turkey.) SUBORNATION Perjury.) OF PERJURY. (See SUBSIDIES. With the Romans, the third line of troops (corps de reserve), which, in case of necessity, assisted the two first, was called subsidium. Hence subsidiary is used in the sense of auxiliary. The substantive subsidy is used to denote the pecuniary assistance afforded, according to treaty, by one government to another, sometimes to secure its neutrality, but more frequently in consideration of its furnishing a certain number of troops. Subsidies, or supplies, in England, also denotes the money granted by parliament to the government. SUBJECT, in philosophy. (See Object.) In ethics, subject often designates a free agent, in contradistinction to things inanimate. In music, the theme of a fugue is called subject. In politics, all the people who owe allegiance to a monarch, have been heretofore called the monarch's subjects, even when his authority rested on a contract with the people, and his power was limited. But the French seem unwilling to allow this name to be applied to them since the revolution of 1830. The use of the word in this application, by the minister Montalivet, in the session of January 4, 1832, caused much excitement in the chamber of deputies, and ministers have since avoided it. Those persons who are under the sway of a repub-ical sense, is contradistinguished to accilic, without participating in all the rights of those in whom the sovereignty rests, are also called subjects. Thus Hamburg calls the inhabitants of Ritzebüttel subjects. SUBJECTIVE, and SUBJECTIVITY. (See Objeci. SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE. (See Mercury, vol. viii, p. 421.) SUBSTANCE (substantia), in a philosoph dent, and signifies that which exists independently and unchangeably; whilst accident denotes the changeable phenomena in substance, whether these phenomena are necessary or casual, in which latter case they are called accidents, in a narrower sense. The relation of accident to substance is called the relation of inherence, and corresponds to the logical relation of subject and predicate; because the substance is the subject, to which are assigned the qualities, states and relations as predicates: substance itself is the essence, which is capable of these phenomena, and, in spite of these changes, re SUBLIMATION; a process by which volatile substances are raised by heat, and again condensed in a solid form. This chemical process differs from evaporation only in being confined to solid substances. It is usually performed either for the purpose of purifying certain sub-mains the same. Some schoolmen gave stances, and disengaging them from extraneous matters, or else to reduce them into vapor, and combine them under that form. As all fluids are volatilized by heat, and consequently capable of being separated, in most cases, from fixed matters, so various solid bodies are subjected to a similar treatment. Fluids are said to distil, and solids to sublime, though sometimes both are obtained in one and the same operation. If the subliming matter concretes into a solid, hard mass, it is commonly called a sublimate; if into a powdery form, flowers. The principal subjects of this operation are, volatile alkaline salts; neutral salts, composed of volatile alkali and acids, as sal ammoniac; the salt of amber, and flowers of benzoin, mercurial preparations, and sulphur. Bodies of themselves not volatile, are frequently made to sublime by the mixture the uame of substance to that in which exists our ideal of perfection; others to a thing which exists through itself and for itself. Leibnitz calls substance that which contains in itself the cause of its changes. In natural science and in common life, substance is used to designate material beings, especially simple, inorganic bodies, and the fundamental constituents of organic bodies; e. g. a liquid substance. But every substance which falls within the scope of our observation, if we understand by substance that which is unchangeable in its phenomena, is only a relative one; i. e. is such only in respect to some others, and is not unconditionally independent, but must be conceived dependent upon one original cause of things. In contradistinction to the relative substance, therefore, we speak of absolute substance, as the one original essence of all things; and the relation of the latter to the former has been variously considered. Spinoza has treated particularly of the one absolute substance, and given to it infinite thought and infinite extension as inseparable attributes. SUBSTANTIVE. (See Noun.) SUBSTITUTION, in the civil law, is the appointment of an heir to succeed in case of the failure of one previously appointed. If the second person is to succeed in case of the death of the first, or of his not accepting the inheritance, the substitution is called direct, if the first heir is bound to convey the inheritance to the substitute or second heir. This is a fideicommissary substitution. (See Fidei Commissa.) The former kind comprises the vulgar substitution, which is merely the appointment of a second heir in case the first should not inherit, and the pupillary substitution, which is the appointment of an heir, by a father or grandfather, in the name of a minor child, over whom he has paternal power, in case the latter should die a minor. The mother cannot make a pupillary substitution. The latter ceases, 1. by the death of the minor in question before the death of the testator; 2. by his arriving at full age; 3. by the paternal appointment failing to take effect; 4. by the withdrawing of the minor from the paternal power. The quasi pupillary substitution (substitutio exemplaris) is the appointment of an heir by parents for an idiot child, in case the child should die in a state of idiocy. If the child has lucid intervals, the parents are not allowed to make such substitution; otherwise, even the mother may do it. Subtangent of a CURVE, in the higher geometry, is the line which determines the intersection of the tangent with the axis, or that determines the point where the tangent cuts the axis prolonged. SUBTENSE, in geometry; the same with the chord of an arch. SUCCESSION POWDER. (See Poudre de Succession.) SUCCINIC ACID; an acid derived from the distillation of amber. By adding one twelfth part of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, the yield of acid is much increased. The acid, being dissolved in hot water, and filtered, is to be saturated with potash or soda, and boiled with charcoal. The solution being filtered, nitrate of lead is added; whence results an insoluble succinate of lead; from which, by digestion in the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, pure succinic acid is separated. It is in white trans parent crystals, which possess a sharp. taste, and powerfully redden tincture of turnsole. It is soluble in both alcohol and water. It forms salts with the alkalies and oxides. The succinates of potash and ammonia are crystallizable and deliquescent. That of soda does not attract moisture. The succinate of ammonia is useful in analysis to separate oxide of iron. SUCCORY. (See Endive.) SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, marshal of France, born at Lyons in 1770, entered the military service at an early age (1790), and passed rapidly through the inferior ranks. In 1796, he was attached to the army of Italy, and attracted the notice of general Bonaparte, by his courage, boldness and caution. He then served with distinction under Masséna and Joubert, and was one of the most active and successful of Napoleon's generals in the campaigns of 1805 and 1806. In 1808, he received the command of a division in Spain, and was almost constantly victorious till after the battle of Vittoria. His brilliant services in that country obtained him the marshal's staff, and the title of duke. After the restoration, Suchet was created peer of France. Having accepted, under Napoleon, a command during the hundred days, he was deprived of his seat on the second restoration, but readmitted in 1819. He died in 1826. SUCKING FISH. (See Echeneis.) SUCKLING, Sir John, a wit, courtier, and dramatist, son of a knight of the same name, was born in 1613, at Witham, in Middlesex. He is said to have spoken Latin fluently at five years old, and written it with ease and elegance at nine. After lingering some time about the court, he was despatched upon his travels, and served a campaign under the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, in the course of which he was present at three battles and several sieges. At the time of the Scotch war, sir John raised a troop of horse for the king's service, who behaved so badly in the field as to disgrace both themselves and their commander. An abortive attempt to effect the escape of the earl of Strafford, confined in the Tower under articles of impeachment from the commons, implicated sir John so seriously, that he thought it advisable to retire to France, where he died in 1641. His writings consist of letters written with ease and spirit; some miscellaneous poems; Aglaura, a play; Brennoralt, a tragedy; the Sad One, a tragedy left incomplete; and the Goblins, a tragi-comedy. army, under the latter, in Upper Peru, made it necessary for Sucre to reembark, SUCRE, Antonio Jose de, was born in and return to Callao. In September, gen1793, at Cumana, in Venezuela. He was eral Bolivar made his public entry into educated at Caracas, and entered the ar- Lima, having obtained permission from my in 1811, where he served with credit the Colombian government to prosecute under the orders of the celebrated Miran- the war in Peru, and was immediately da. Afterwards he became favorably invested with supreme authority in miliknown for activity, intelligence and cour- tary and political affairs. Of course, age, under Piar, the mulatto general. general Sucre now became only second in From 1814 to 1817, Sucre served in the command of the liberating army, consiststaff of the army, and displayed the zeal ing of 10,000 men, assembled at Huaras, and talent which characterized him. In preparatory to commencing offensive op1819, he had attained the rank of briga- erations. But after the battle of Junin, dier-general, and was one of the com- gained by the patriots, August 5, 1824, missioners appointed, after the battle of Bolivar quitted the army, and went to Bojaca, to negotiate a suspension of hos- Lima, to attend to affairs on the coast, tilities with Morillo. Subsequently to leaving the prosecution of the war with this, he received the command of a divis- Sucre. In the arduous and masterly ion sent from Bogota to assist the province movements which followed, Sucre disof Guayaquil. He met with a severe check played the skill of a consummate general. at Huachi, but succeeded, late in the year The scene of operations was the moun1821, in concluding an armistice with tainous region of Peru. It was necesAymerich, the royalist general, which sary that he should march and counterwas, in its effects, equivalent to a victory. march, for the space of two months, over It enabled the Peruvian division, under this difficult ground, in the face of a Santa Cruz, to form a junction with the much superior army, commanded by the Colombiaps. Hostilities recommenced in ablest royalist generals in America, whose February, 1822, and the united armies aim it was to cut off his resources, and were so fortunate as to achieve the deci- reduce him without the hazard of a batsive victory of Pichincha, May 24, 1822, tle. But the impatience of the troops on which was immediately followed by the each side brought on a general engagecapitulation of Quito. This brilliant suc- ment in the field of Ayacucho, Dec. C, 1824, cess fixed the public attention upon Su- the most brilliant ever fought in South cre, and raised expectations of his future America. Both armies consisted of veteran eminence, which the event fully justified. troops, well appointed and disciplined, Meanwhile Bolivar had proceeded to the who fought with undaunted courage. south, at the head of a large army destined The battle resulted in the capture of the to act against the Spanish forces in that viceroy La Serna, and the loss of 2000 quarter; and, in July, 1822, had an inter- of the royalists in killed and wounded; view with the protector, San Martin, at and on the same day general Canterac, Guayaquil. Early in 1823, Sucre was with the rest of the army, comprising fifdespatched to Lima as Colombian envoy, teen general officers and nearly 4000 men accompanied by an auxiliary Colombian in all, surrendered themselves prisoners of army of 3000 men. Lima, having been war, by capitulation. Sucre promptly folleft unprotected, at this time, by the de- lowed up this glorious victory, and his parture of Santa Cruz to reduce the troops entered Cuzco on the 12th of Desouthern provinces, was retaken by Can- cember in triumph. As Olañeta, with a terac, and abandoned by the president, small body of royalists in Upper Peru, reRiva-Aguero, and the Peruvian congress, fused to comply with the terms of the June 18, 1823. Hereupon Sucre was ap- capitulation of Ayacucho, Sucre was pointed commander-in-chief of the forces, obliged to march upon Puno, which he and, a few days afterwards, supreme milita- entered in February, and thence proceedry chief, with powers almost unlimited. He ed to Chuquisaca. The death of Оlaneretired to Callao, which was invested by ta, who was killed in April, in an af the royalists, until the successes of Santa fray with his own troops, accomplished Cruz in the south obliged Canterac to the delivery of Upper Peru. Until a regevacuate Lima, July 17, 1823. Sucre ular government could be established, then determined to place himself at the Sucre, of course, remained in the exerhead of an expedition sent against Are- cise of authority as supreme chief; but quipa, and to coöperate with Santa Cruz. he summoned a congress to assemble, as But the total destruction of the patriot speedily as might be, at Chuquisaca, to decide whether Upper Peru should be annexed to Lower Peru, or to Buenos Ayres, or form a republic by itself. The constituent congress decreed, August 11, 1825, to form a new republic, by the name of Bolivia, and to call the capital by the name of Sucre, in whom the government was vested for the time being, with the title of "captain-general and grand-marshal of Ayacucho." The congress, having solicited Bolivar to prepare a fundamental code for Bolivia, dissolved itself, Oct. 6, 1825. The new congress assembled to receive it, May 25, 1826. Sucre then resigned the discretionary power, which he had exercised hitherto; but, contrary to his expressed wish, and contrary, probably, to his real desire, he was elected president of Bolivia, under the new constitution. How far apprehensions of the auxiliary Colombian army, still remaining in Upper Peru, influenced this decision of the electors, we do not know; but Sucre's reluctance to assume the presidency seems to have been sincere, because it was constantly persisted in by him, and ended in his resigning the office, and returning to Colombia. The influence of the revolution at Lima, in January, 1827, when the Colombian troops there overturned the government of Bolivar, and the people trampled under foot the Bolivian code, was of course felt in Bolivia. But Sucre endeavored to guard against the example being followed in Bolivia, and at the same time gave the strongest assurances to the new government of Peru, of his determination to maintain a strict neutrality. This did not prevent uneasiness and disturbances from growing up, which eventuated in a serious insurrection, and an attack upon Sucre, in which he was dangerously wounded, and lost an arm. If his resolution had not already been taken, these events would have served to hasten his departure, with that of the auxiliary Colombian army, which took place in August, 1828, in consequence of some hostile movements of the anti-Colombian party, aided by general Gamarra, from Peru. Notwithstanding this reverse in Bolivia, fortune soon threw a new field of distinction in the way of Sucre, in the war which now broke out between Peru and Colombia. He was made commander of the Colombian army of the south, and political chief of the southern departments of the Colombian republic, and led the troops in the series of military operations which terminated in the battle of Tarqui, and the humiliating defeat and capitulation of the Peruvians under general La Mar, Feb. 26, 1829. Sucre became a member of the constituent congress of 1830, and, on his return to Quito from that body, was assassinated in the neighborhood of Pasto, in June, 1830, whether by private enemies among the Pastusos, or by the instigation of some of his political rivals, is not ascertained. It probably was the act of some of the Pastusos, who remembered the severities which the Colombian army inflicted on them in the campaign of 1822, under the orders of Sucre. SUDERMANNLAND. (See Sweden.) SUEABORG, OF SWEABORG; the northern Gibraltar; a fortress of Russian Finland, on the gulf of Finland; three miles south of Helsingfors; population, exclusive of the garrison, 3500. The harbor is capable of containing seventy men-of-war, easily defended by batteries that sweep the channel forming the only entrance for large ships. It is formed by several small islands, of which the principal, called Margöe, contains the arsenals, docks, basins, and magazines for fitting out or repairing men-of-war. SUETONIUS. Caius Suetonius Tranquillus, a Roman writer, born of a plebeian family, flourished about 100 A. D. Little is known of the circumstances of his life. He distinguished himself as an advocate, obtained the tribuneship through the influence of Pliny the younger, and was appointed secretary (magister epistolarum) to the emperor Adrian. From an expression of Spartian in his Life of Adrian, we learn that Suetonius lost this place, on account of his intimacy with the empress Sabina; but the particulars of the affair are unknown to us. Of the works of Suetonius, only the Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, and Notices of celebrated Grammarians, Rhetoricians and Poets, are yet extant. The former work gives an interesting account of the private life and personal character of the twelve first Roman emperors, from Julius Cæsar to Domitian, and is of great value to us from the light which it throws on domestic manners and customs. The best editions of Suetonius are those of Pitiscus (1714), Burmann (1736), Oudendorp (1751), Wolf (1802), and Baumgarten-Crusius (1816 seq.). There is an English translation by Thompson. SUEUR, LE. (See Lesueur.) SUEVI; the general name of a number of united tribes, who, before the Christian era, inhabited the greater part of Germany. The Hermunduri, Seminones, Lombards, |