wind. Afterwards, at the village of Lemedis, it spreads to the breadth of about 55 yards, and keeps this breadth for 24 leagues, where the banks are 13 feet above the bottom of the canal, and 10 above the surface of the ground. Passing over 2 leagues more, towards Alexandria to Gabel, the breadth is contracted to 224 yards. It continues of about this breadth for 4 leagues, and is very regular. Beyond Leloha, it widens, varying in the first half league from 109 to 273 yards in breadth. Near Beda, it is 55 yards wide, and the banks 23 feet high. Passing on towards Alexandria, the country sinks by degrees, until the bottom of the canal is on a level with the adjacent territory, and then rises above it, the canal being here formed by embankments; but, for a league before arriving at Alexandria, the ground rises again, so that the canal is here formed by an excavation in the ground. It passes very near the lake Aboukir, on the left, in the course we have been following, and is separated from it, near the western extremity of the lake, only by a wall about 20 feet in thickness.-The water must rise 13 feet above the lowest state of the Nile to enter the Alexandria canal; and, at high water in the Nile, the water in the canal is about 2 feet deep on an average. The distance, in a straight line, from Rhameneh to Alexandria, is about 15 leagues, but by the course of the canal, 20. The navigation of this canal continues only about 20 or 25 days in the year, during the highest water of the Nile, The French, when in Egypt, were enabled to navigate this canal for six weeks by clearing away about 18 inches of mud near Rhameneh, at the eastern extremity. This canal, which now passes through ruins and deserts, and is navigable for only a few days of the year, was, as late as the 14th century, bordered by a wealthy and populous territory, and, in the time of the Roman and Greek empires, was the channel of an extensive transportation. CANALS OF CHINA. The Chinese seem to have a more extensive inland canal navigation than any other nation, if not greater than that of all other nations. The general course of the rivers is from west to east, the principal of which are the Yang-tse, or Kiang-keo, to the south, the course of which is said to be 2000 miles, and its breadth 24 miles at a distance of 100 miles from its mouth; and the Yellow river, to the northward, which is represented to be still longer. These two rivers empty into the sea, within 100 miles of each other, though they are more

than 1000 miles apart in the interior of the country. The artificial channels of navigation pass in a northerly and southerly direction across the territory lying between the natural streams, thus making lines of communication between these principal rivers and their various branches, which form the natural channels of transportation in the easterly and westerly direction. As these canals pass over the summits of the intermediate territories between the great streams, the different parts of the canals must be upon different levels, and there must, accordingly, be some means for boats to pass from one level to another, which they do mostly by means of inclined planes and rollers, over which they are drawn by men. The ascent and descent, at some of these planes, is 15 feet. The banks of the canals are, in many instances, lined with freestone, and contain sluices to let the water off for irrigating the country and supplying the towns; and in many parts, also, they are beautifully ornamented with trees. The barque in which Le Compte passed from Nimpo on a canal, was 70 feet long and 16 feet broad. The management, repairs and extension of the canals is a very important branch of the internal economy of the empire, and the description and history of these works is said to occupy 40 volumes; which does not, however, give us a very definite idea of the extent of these records, as we are not told the size of these volumes. Some of the most extensive of these works have been in operation about 2000 years, having been completed 80 years before the Christian era; and, about A. D. 605, it is said there were completed in the empire 1600 leagues of canal.-The Imperial canal, and the continuation of the line of transportation between Pekin and Canton, of which that forms a part, is most frequently spoken of, though the distance of the whole route is variously stated. MalteBrun, in his Geography, states it at 1660 miles, but it is stated by others at 920, The navigation over this route occupies about 3 months. The part of this line called the Imperial canal is said to be about 500 miles in length from the vicinity of Pekin to the Yellow river, which it meets about 25 leagues from the sea, where the river is about a mile wide and 9 or 10 feet deep. This canal is called the Imperial, from its being navigated only by the emperor's boats, which Le Compte estimates at 1000, of 100 tons burthen each. Between the Yellow river and Canton, the navigation is interrupted, for about 30

450

miles, by a mountainous district, causing a portage of that distance.

CANALS OF ITALY. In ancient Italy, besides the canal of the Pontine marshes, intended as a drain, and used also for navigation, the region about the mouths of the Po was intersected by the fossa Augusti, fossa Philistina, and numerous other canals. It was in Italy that the great improvement, in modern cauals, over the ancient and those of China, was first introduced, in 1481, by the construction of locks and sluices to pass boats from one level to another. It was the invention of two engineers of Viterbo, brothers, whose names have not been handed down. This improvement was soon after adopted in the Milanese territory, under the direction of Leonardo da Vinci, the famous painter, who was also celebrated as an engineer. Inland navigation became so important, that the Italian governments paid great attention to it, and enacted many regulations on the subject, and numerous treatises were published on the construction of locks and the art of making and managing canals. The following are some of the principal canals of modern Italy. The Naviglio Grande, between Milan and the river Tesino, 15 miles in length, 130 French feet broad at the surface, and 46 at the bottom. It was extended to Milan in 1257, and enlarged, in 1269, with a branch of about 11 miles in length, from Abiato southward. The Martesena canal branches off from the right bank of the Adda, near Concessa (ancient Trizzo); is 24 miles in length and 33 feet in breadth, and is raised, in some places, by walls and embankments, 110 feet above the level of the river. In 1497, 5 locks were introduced into this canal. The great canal of Tesino terminates at Milan. The Muzza canal is drawn also from the river Adda, near Cassano, and re-enters the river at Castiglione, 40 miles distant.-In Piedmont are the Naviglio d'Inéa, 38 miles in length, uniting the Dora Baltea and the Sessia, with a branch of 13 miles, to the Gardena river; and a canal of 27 miles from Dora Baltea, a little above the falls of the Po,which, passing Trino, unites with the Po 4 miles below Casal. These 2 canals are parallel to the Po, and substitutes for it. There are 3 other short canals in this territory. In the duchy of Mantua is the fossa Puzzola, 15 miles in length, from the Mincio to the Tartaro, and the canal of St. George, 7 miles long, branching to the lake of Mantua; also the Montanaro, 8 miles from the same lake to the Po, at Borgo Fute; the fossa

Maestra, 5 miles from Ozoma to the canal Montanaro; and the Fossero, from the Mincio, 7 miles.-In the duchy of Modena is a canal 16 miles in length, from Secchia by Modena to Panaro, which has several branches, one 5 miles long.-In the papal territory is the fossa Rangone, parallel to the Panaro, from which a branch passes off by Conte to Po Mort or Po di Jerana, and the canal Di Giovanni Niginales, 22 miles long. From Bologna to Ferrara is the canal Di Naviglio, 24 miles long, and terminating in the great marshes.-There are, besides, many short branches of the canals, already mentioned, as well as locks and channels for passing rapids in the navigable rivers,

CANALS OF RUSSIA. The canals of Russia began with Peter the Great, who had observed their useful effects in Holland. He commenced three. The canal of Latoga, begun by him A. D. 1718, and finished by the empress Anne, is 674 miles long, from the Volk to the Neva, 70 feet broad, and the water 7 feet deep in summer, and 10 in winter.-The canal of Vishnei-Volosholk, completed under Peter the Great, but much improved, afterwards, by Catharine, forms a communication, by water, between Astracan and Petersburg, or between the Caspian and the Baltic, which is effected, as will be seen by referring to the map, by passing from the Caspian up the Wolga, then turning into the river İvertza; leaving which, the canal passes over to the river Schlina, which flows towards the Baltic into the lake Martina, from which flows the river Mista, which, after a course of 234 miles, discharges itself into lake Ilmen, from which issues the Volk, that runs 130 miles, and empties into the lake Ladoga, which again gives rise to the Neva, that discharges itself into the Baltic at Petersburg; so that these three rivers are, in fact, the same stream, passing through three lakes in its course. It is said that 3485 barques have passed through this canal in one year.-There are many other canals in Russia, which we have not space to describe. The canals and rivers supply the channels of a very extensive inland navigation in Russia; so that goods may be transported, by rivers and canals, from the frontiers of China to Petersburg, a distance of 4472 miles; and the line of navigation from Astracan to that capital is 1434 miles.

CANALS OF SWEDEN. Canals were early opened in Sweden, and the improvement of the inland navigation has always been a subject of great interest to the government. Among the modern canals of this country is that of Stromsholm, 60 miles

long, the descent 336 feet, the number of locks 25, breadth 18 feet, and depth 4 feet 4 inches.-The Kindac canal and the Gotha canal, intended to open a communication between the lake Wenner and the Baltic, have been commenced under the superintendence of the English engineer Mr. Telford.-The canal of Trolhatta makes a navigable channel round the rapids of Trolhatta, in the river Gotha, consisting of successive cascades, one of 60 feet in height, and, in all, 114 feet, and situated N. E. of Gothenburg, about 45 miles. The project of constructing works, by which to pass these rapids, was long contemplated, and finally accomplished in 1800. These rapids interrupted the navigation of the Gotha for about two miles; and the difficulty of making a canal past them was owing to the banks being bold and rocky, as is usual at falls of such extent. They are now passed by nine locks, mostly excavated out of solid rock. This is considered a gigantic work, and was executed by a private company, to their own emolument, as well as the public benefit.

CANALS OF DENMARK. The principal canal in this country is that of Keil, which commences about 3 miles north of Keil, and passes 20 miles across the duchy of Holstein to the river Eydar, which, running by Rendsburg, falls into the German ocean at Jonningen. The Keil canal thus opens a communication between the two seas. It was begun in 1777, and completed in 1785; is 100 feet broad at the top, 57 at the bottom, and the least depth of water is 10 feet. The descent from the summit towards the Baltic is 25 feet, and towards the German ocean 23 feet. It has 6 locks.

CANALS OF HOLLAND. This country, it is well known, is intersected, in all directions, by canals, which serve for navigation in summer, and roads of ice in winter. The surface of the water, in many of these canals, is above that of the surrounding country; the lands of which are drained by pumping the water up into the canals; for which purpose numerous windmills are scattered about the country, and kept in operation. (For the great ship canal from Amsterdam to Niewe Diep, see Amsterdam.)

CANALS OF GERMANY. The improvement of inland navigation in Germany has been obstructed by the division of the territory into numerous small jurisdictions, which are, in many respects, independent of each other. The canal between Vienna and Neustadt is 40 miles in length; and

that of Francis, completed in 1802, between the Danube and Jeysse, is of the same length, and has 3 locks.-In Prussia are the canals of Stecknitz, Planer, Potsdam, Finow, Muhlrose, Frederic William, and the Bromberg. This last was constructed under Frederic the Great, by the engineer Breekenhaaff. It is 16 miles in length, has a descent of 67 feet, and 9 locks. (See Fossa Carolina.)

CANALS OF SPAIN. Spain has done almost nothing towards improving its internal navigation. Some canals have been projected, but only a part of the Arragon canal has been completed, consisting of two pieces of canal, both commencing at Navarre. Though this partial execution of the projected navigation has had a sensible effect in promoting the populousness, fertility and wealth of the neighboring territory, the work stands still; and there seems to be little prospect of the completion of the project.

The

CANALS OF FRANCE. The canals of France, next to those of Great Britain, are the most important in Europe, in respect to their extent and the difficulties overcome in their construction. whole length of canal navigation in France is about 900 miles, or about one third part of that of Great Britain.-Canal of Briare. The first important work of this kind, constructed in France, was the canal of Briare, called, also, that of the Loire and Seine, because its object was to connect those two rivers. It was 37 years in execution, being begun in 1605, during the reign of Henry IV, and completed in 1642. It is 344 miles in length. From the Loire, about a mile from Briare, it ascends along the river Frezee, by Ouzonne and Rogny, where are 7 locks; then by Chatillon and Montargis, and, near Ce-. pay, meets the river Loing, which falls into the Seine. The locks of this canal, 40 or 42 in number, were the first executed in France. They vary from 124 to 164 feet in length, and from 5 feet 4 inches to more than 13 feet in lift, and are, according to some authorities, 14 feet 5 inches, or, according to others, 15 feet, in breadth. The bottom of the canal is 25 wide. It is supplied with water principally by lakes; one of the feeders, that of Privé, is 12 miles in length. The cost of this canal is estimated at 20,000,000 francs, or about $3,700,000, which, considering the difference in the value of money, is nearly equal to that of the Erie canal of New York. It is important for the supply of provisions to Paris.-The canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, makes

16

452

nean at the city of Cette, and the Atlantic ocean at the mouth of the Garonne, passing through the province of Languedoc, and is supplied by the rivers Garonne and Gironde, and their tributaries. It was undertaken in 1664, 22 years after that of Briare was completed, and finished in 1680; being 148 English miles in length, from the coast of the Mediterranean to Toulouse, where it meets the Garonne; 64 feet wide at the surface of the water, and 34 or 35 feet at the bottom; rising, at the summit, 200 metres, or about 640 feet, above tide-water, and having 114 locks, varying in lift from 4 to 12 feet, and navigated by boats 85 feet long, and from 17 to 19 broad, drawing 5 feet 4 inches of water, and of 100 tons burthen. The reservoir of St. Ferrol is situated at the summit-level, where a body of water more than five French leagues in length is accumulated, for the supply of the canal, from the streams falling from the neighboring mountains. This reservoir and the basins at Castelnaudary cover 595 acres. The canal passes under a mountain at Beziers, by a tunnel of 720 feet in length, lined throughout with freestone-a kind of construction novel at the time when the canal was made, though now common. The canal is crossed by 92 road-bridges, and has 55 aqueduct bridges. It was completed under Louis XIV, under the direction of François Andreossi, as engineer. It is estimated to have cost 33,000,000 francs, or about $6,160,000; in comparing which with the cost of similar works in Great Britain and the U. States, allowance must, as above suggested, be made for the differ ence in the value of money, the same nominal cost, in France, being a much greater actual cost, in this comparison.The canal of Orleans was the next in order of time, having been begun in 1675, and completed in 1692, 12 years after that of Languedoc. It branches from the Loire, near to Orleans, 36 miles below the place where the canal of Briare meets that river, and joins the canal of Briare at Montargis, being 45 miles long. One object of its construction was to save the difficult navigation on the Loire, between Orleans and the junction of the canal of Briare with that river, and to open a shorter route of communication between the Lower Loire and Paris. It has 28 locks, varying from 136 to 1774 feet in length, and of lifts from 5 feet 4 inches to 12 feet 7 inches. From the Loire to the summit, the ascent is 98 feet 2 inches.

32 feet, at the surface of the water, and the depth from 44 feet, when full, to 2 feet, when lowest. The boats are from 96 to 102 feet long, and 13 feet 10 inches broad. The expense of its construction is stated at 8,000,000 francs, or about $1,500,000.-The canal of Loing is a continuation of the navigation of that of Orleans, and the northern part of that of Briare, commencing from the northern extremity of that of Briare, and extending to the river Seine, terminating in the neighborhood of Fontainebleau. It was completed in 1723, is 33 miles long, 44 feet broad at the surface, 34 at the bottom, and from 4 to 5 feet deep. The towing path, on each side, is 6 feet 5 inches broad, outside of which, on each side, is an embankment, like the levées on the Mississippi, or the dykes of Holland, 3 feet high, 19 feet broad at the base, and 12 feet 9 inches at the top, to prevent the waters from overflowing during floods. The whole descent is 136 feet 8 inches, divided among 21 locks, which vary in lift from 4 to 7 feet, and in breadth from 15 to 16. The cost is stated at 2,500,000 francs, or about $466,000. It was constructed about the same time with the canal of Orleans.-The canal of the centre, called, also, that of Charolois, and likewise a branch of the "Grand Navigation," completed in 1791, leaves the Loire at Dijon, follows the banks of the Arran, then the left bank of the Bourbonne, and passes by Parce, Genelard, Aire and Blauzey, to the lakes of Monschamin and Long-pendu, which form the summitlevel, the rise being 240 feet, by 30 locks, in 6300 metres. The summit-level is a distance of 3940 metres, whence the ca nal descends, by the river Dheune, to St. Julian, where it crosses that river, and passes along the right bank by St. Benain, St. Leger and St. Gilles, to Chagny, leaves the valley of the Dheune, and crosses towards the river Halia, which it follows to its junction with the Soane at Chalons, the descent from the summit being 400 feet by 50 locks, in a distance of 47,000 metres; the whole length of the canal being about 71 miles, the breadth, at the surface of the water, 48 feet, at the bottom 30 feet, the depth of the water 5 feet, the length of each lock 100 feet, and its breadth 16. The cost of this canal is stated at 11,000,000 francs, or about $2,060,000.-The canal of St. Quintin unites the Scheldt with the canal of Flanders. It was projected, in 1797, by the military engineer Devieq, but not

constructed until 1810. The original plan, which has been very nearly followed, was to proceed from Maquincourt, near the Scheldt, to mount St. Martin, there pass through a tunnel 3440 toises, or a little more than 3 miles, long; then follow the valley of Bellinglise and Haut Court to the heights of Tronquoy; there pass through a tunnel 700 toises, a little more than of a mile, in length, coming out at Ledin; making the distance of the summit-level 7090 toises, or a little over 8 miles, of which 2950 are open, and 4140, or more than 4 miles, subterraneous. The length of this canal is 28 miles; in the rise from St. Quintin to the summitlevel, there are 5 locks, and in the descent to Cambray, 17. The cost is stated at 12,000,000 francs, or about $2,250,000.-Besides the above canals, 42 others are enumerated in the Encyclopédie Moderne, as completed, or in the course of construction, in France, in 1825.

CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. The English were a century after the French in commencing the construction of canals upon a large scale. The first considerable work of this description was the Sankey canal, for which an act of parliament was passed in 1755; the object of the act being the improvement of the navigation of Sankey brook; which plan was afterwards changed to that of a separate canal of 12 miles in length. While the work on this canal was in progress, in 1758, the duke of Bridgewater obtained an act of parliament for making Worsley

brook navigable from Worsley mill to the river Irwell, for the purpose of facilitating the transportation of coals from his estate to Manchester; but, seeing the advantages of still-water navigation over that of a river, he conceived the project of a canal over dry land, passing the river Irwell by an aqueduct, and thus making a communication between his coal-mines and the town of Manchester on one level. The plan was subsequently extended, and the duke, who lived 14 years after the commencement of the execution of his project (he died in 1772, at the age of 56), devoted his time and his fortune to the execution of his great work, with the assistance of an engineer distinguished for his genius. He diverted all his resources into this channel, and, to enlarge his means for the undertaking, he limited his personal expenses to £400 a year, and is even supposed to have shortened his life in consequence of the toils and anxiety attendant upon so arduous an enterprise. It was a grand project, worthy of the sacrifices he made to it. And it is a stupendous monument, whereby his memory is associated with the wealth and prosperity of England. The works were projected by the celebrated engineer John Brindley, and executed under his direction, and constitute a lasting memorial of his genius and skill.

The following are the principal canals in Great Britain. (Originally denotes the first assumed cost per share, where the actual cost is not ascertained.)

Depth.

From Glamorganshire to Abernant. Length of the boats, 12 feet; breadth, 5. Number of shares, 221; originally, £100; value in 1824, £25. From Aberdeen harbor to Don river, at Inverary bridge; 17 locks.

From Southampton water to Andover; has been partially abandoned. Number of shares, 350; originally, £100; value in 1824, £5.

From the Coventry canal, at Marston bridge, to an iron railway, 34 miles long, at Ticknall. The first 30 miles are level, forming, with the Coventry and Oxford canal, a level