very often. Not less manifold in signification, and equally subtile in the determination of time, are the participles and the participial constructions. The determination of the sex and the number by the final syllable of the participle gives the Czechish language no small preference above others. The Bohemian can express himself as elegantly and politely, and at the same time as concisely, as the Greek with his optative; for instance, nechalo toho, she may let it go; veinil, let him do it. The small, connective particles of speech, which the Bohemian has, in common with the Greek, must be considered as so many touches and shadings, by which the whole idea and feeling is more distinctly expressed. The Greek ἀλλα μεν, γαρ, δε, τε, &c. agree with the Bohemian ele pak, wsak, li, z, t'; only the three latter are always affixed to a word. Finally, the free, unrestrained arrangement of the words contributes much to perspicuity, as the Bohemian is less fettered than any of the other modern languages to a particular construction.-By a happy mixture of vowels and consonants, and by a combination of the latter favorable for the pronunciation, the language has also much euphony, though many call it rough on account of the r (read rsh); but the sound of entire words, not that of the single letters which compose them, determines the roughness or smoothness of their pronunciation; besides, every language, on account of the difference of the feelings which it has to convey, some gentle, others harsh and violent,―ought to be able to form some harsh sounds. The terminations of the various declensions and conjugations are mostly vowels, or the smoother consonants. In general, the Bohemian has a natural melody, like that of the Greek; for the tongue stops longer on a syllable containing a long vowel, á, é, j, u, y, than on one containing a short vowel. In the Bohemian alphabet of 42 letters (a number in which it is surpassed only by the Indian, the most copious of known alphabets, and the Russian, which comes next to it), there are to be found all the sounds of the other languages. The English sound of ts the Bohemian expresses with c, the English y with g, the sh with ss or 8, the Italian ce or ci with c, the French ge and gi with the z, the Italian u with the Y, the gn with the n, the English w with the w, particularly at the end of words. Hence his alphabet enables him to write all languages so as to give their correct pronunciation, and to pronounce

them easily and well, so as to be consid ered by Frenchmen, Germans and Italians as their countryman. He never confounds smooth and rough letters; his singing is easy and graceful, and the Bohemian opera pleases, like the Italian, as it suppresses no syllables, but gives a full sound to each word. It is very seldom that combinations of difficult consonants are to be found in the Sclavonic idioms, and these may be softened by the freedom of construction which the language allows. The euphony of the language is also the reason why the Bohemian takes a rank in music inferior only to that of the Italian. Throughout Europe, Bohemian musicians are to be found: the distinguished musicians of Austria are mostly from Bohemia. Taste and feeling for music almost always keep pace with the melody of the language of a nation.

Bohemian Literature has five periods. The first extends from the mythological times to 1409. It is certain, that, among the Sclavonian tribes, the Czechi were the first who cultivated and fixed their language. (See Sclavonians and Sclavonic Language.) It affords no written documents of remote antiquity, unless we believe the Runic characters to have been in use before the introduction of Christianity. We know, however, that the language of that period was similar to the present, from the names of the gods, dukes, rivers, cities, mountains, which have been preserved, such as Perun, Prcemysl, Boriwog, Witawa, Bila, Praha, Tetin, Krkonose. The Sclavonian apostle Method, and the philosopher Constantine, called Cyril, made the Sclavonians in Moravia acquainted with Christianity. From thence it penetrated, under duke Boirwog, to Bohemia, and thus the people of this country received the GræcoSclavonic ritual in the year 845. The same Constantine invented for the sounds of the Sclavonic language the CyrillicSclavonic alphabet-Az, Buky, Wiedi, Glagol, Dobro, &c., borrowed mostly from the Greek. In later times, the Glagolitic alphabet sprung up, of which, however, less use was made. When the Latin church supplanted the Greek in Moravia, Bohemia and Pannonia, the Latin alphabet came also into use, instead of the Cyrillic. In Bohemia, the Cyrillic character was in use only with the monks of Sazawa, who observed the Sclavonic ritual. King Wratislaus, intending to introduce it again in other places, and asking the permission of pope Gregory VII, received a refusal. As the Latins endeav

ored to annihilate all the writings of the old ritual, and the Sclavonic language was, in many cases, obliged to give way to the Latin, Bohemian literature suffered from popery incalculable injury: hence we possess, from the earlier centuries, but a few insignificant remains in the characters above mentioned. In the 10th century, the Bohemians had a school at Kudet, in which they learnt Latin. Their most ancient relic is the hymn (Hospodine Pomiluyny) of bishop Adalbert (Wegtech), a native Bohemian, which is sung to the present day, even by the Russians and Poles. Some think it of still greater antiquity. From the 11th century, we have no complete works; but, in Latin documents, Sclavonic names are frequently found. The 12th and 13th centuries were more fertile. When king Wratislaus issued the summons for the renowned expedition to Milan, all Prague resounded with the songs of the valiant young knights; but none of them has been preserved. Zawis Z. Rozmberka wrote, in 1290, several good poems. The Bohemians possess the remains of a collection of lyric-epic national songs, without rhyme, which seem to have been of great merit; but only two sheets of parchment, in duodecimo, and two small strips, have been preserved. Mr. Hanka, keeper of the Bohemian national museum, discovered these valuable remains in a room in the church at Königinhof, in a pile of neglected papers. The manuscript appears to have been written in the years 1290 and 1310: some of the poems may be still older: the more is the loss of the greater part of them to be regretted. This whole collection consisted of 3 books, as may be concluded from the inscription of the remaining chapters of the 3d book, which are inscribed 26th, 27th, 28th. 14 poems are preserved, which constitute those 3 chapters. (See Rukopi's Kralod worsky wydany od Wac, Hanky, 1819.) We cannot determine the subject of the first song, Boleslaw, by the part which has come down to us; the second poem, Wihori Dub, calls upon duke Udalrich to drive the Poles from Prague (1003); the third, Benes, celebrates the repulse of the Saxons who advanced from Görlitz; the fourth relates Jaroslaw Sternberg's victory over the Tartars, near Olmütz, in 1241; and so on. Göthe found these national songs worthy of particular attention. They deserve, perhaps, to be placed by the side of Ossian's poems. A Bohemian psalter, and a legend, in rhyme, on the 12 apostles (the latter only a fragment

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of 70 verses, at Vienna), have also been preserved; likewise, the Complaint of a Lover on the Banks of the Muldau (Weltawa), in prose; a fragment of a history of the passion of Jesus, in rhyme; the hymn Swaty Waclawe; besides a number of poems, songs, fables and satires, in verses of four feet, also in rhyme. The 14th century is more productive. Under the emperor Charles IV, who promoted the cultivation of the Bohemian language, the university of Prague was founded, in 1348. In the golden bull, he commanded the sons of the German electors to learn the Bohemian language. Under his son, the emperor Wenceslaus, all decrees were written in Bohemian, which formerly were in Latin. Prague was then not only the most populous city in Germany, but also, on account of its splendid court and the wealth of its citizens, the centre of the arts and sciences. Dalemil Mezericky wrote a history of Bohemia in verse; Ondreg Z. Dube, a collection of Bohemian laws, in 3 vols.; Warinec Z. Brezowa, a history of the Roman emperors, and translated Mandeville's Travels; Pribik Pulkawa, a Bohemian history; and Benes Z. Horowic, a history of the empire to the time of Wenzel. This period affords, also, many vocabularies, poems and songs; also a translation of the life of Alexander the Great; the life of the emperor and king Charles IV; the description of the heroic feats of Pliehta of Zerotin, and of the battle of Cressy, in 1346, and an account of the death of king John, which celebrates his fame and that of the other Bohemian heroes; a description of the tournament in 1315; the expedition of king John against count Matthias of Trenzcin, &c.-With Huss commenced the second period, from 1409 to 1500, which elevated the character of the Bohemian language and nation. The assembled fathers at Constance and Bâle beheld with astonishment, among the Bohemian nobility and citizens, men not only distinguished for their intrepidity, but able, also, to explain with profound learning the word of God. The Bohemian nobility of those times not only wielded with a vigorous arm the national weapon of their country in defence of the rights of the nation, but stood, also, in the first rank of scientific cultivation. Th prevalence of religious disputes caused the Bible to be generally read and understood. Eneas Sylvius, then pope, says, Pudeat Italiæ sacerdotes, quos ne semel quidem novam legem constat legisse, apud Taboritas vix mulierculam invenies, qua

de Novo Testamento et veteri respondere nesciat. (Com. in Dict. Alph. Reg., sec. ii, 17.) Huss of Hussinetz translated Wickliffe's book Trialogus into the Bohemian tongue, and sent it to the laymen as presents. The treatise of the six errors he caused to be inscribed, in Bohemian, on the walls of the chapel of Bethlehem. He wrote his first collection of sermons when at the castle of Kozy (1413), besides an appeal to the pope, a commentary on the ten commandments, an explanation of the twelve articles, two sermons on the Antichrist, the Triple Cord, and several excellent hymns. His letters from the dungeon in Constance to the Bohemians were translated by Luther into Latin, accompanied with a preface, and printed at Wittenberg in 1536. He, and Jakobellus and Jerome, improved and distributed the Bohemian Bible, of which several copies have been preserved to our times. How many of his works perished by the hands of the Jesuits is unknown. The cruel execution of the Bohemian martyrs Huss and Jerome, for their faith, was considered by their countrymen as an outrage upon the whole nation, of which they complained bitterly; many satires, also, were written at that time. Of Zisca of Trocnow, one of the greatest generals in history, several letters, and his rules of war, have been preserved. From this period, there have come down to us, also, several war-songs of the Taborites; as

Kdoz gste Bozj bogownjoy a zakona geho,

a Obrazu Gegjm), and an essay on the love of God. The most famous book of his was one in 40 chapters, which he called Kopyla (Last). Many controversial writings of this period might be mentioned. Bohuslaw of Sechtic wrote the work Zrcadlo wscho Krestanstwa (Mirror of the whole of Christianity). In this, the difference between the conduct of the apostles and of the Roman bishops is represented by various drawings. Three other drawings represent Huss preaching, and at the stake; besides 16 leaves, upon which the life and the letters of Huss are contained. After two pictures, of which one represents the worship of the Hussites, the other the expedition of the Taborites, comes a satirical letter of Lucifer: another plate represents the blind hero Zisca at the head of his army, under which there are quotations from the Taborite war-song, Neprátel se nelekeyte-Na koristech se nezastawugme (Fear not the foes-Stop not for plundering): besides a dialogue, in which the father tells his son how the cup and the law of God had been introduced into Bohemia. The whole consists of 118 leaves, of which 88 have pictures. Stibor of Cïmburg and Towacow wrote the very ingenious work on the possessions of the clergy, which he dedicated to king George, in 1467, and the collection of the rights and privileges of the margraviate of Moravia. Walcowsky Z. Knezmosta wrote on the vices and hypocrisy of the clergy; P. Zidek wrote, in 3 vols., the Art of Governing, 1471

Nuz mniskowé poskakugte,

(Well now, ye monks, be chaste), &c.;

also some songs of Prague. Martin Lupác undertook, with the assistance of some learned men, the labor of translating the whole New Testament, and rendered it, in many places, more correct and plain. The church-service was now performed entirely in the Bohemian language. The bishop of the Taborites, Nicholas of Pelhrimow, wrote a Bohemian and Latin theological tract. Kristan Prachatitzky wrote a book on medicine; Martin Kabátnik, a Journey to Jerusalem; P. Prespole, the mining laws of Kuttenberg and Iglaw, which have since become so famous. Johann Rokycana, H. Litomericky, W. Koranda and others wrote different works on religious subjects. P. Chelcicky gave an explanation of the Lessons of the Gospel for every Sunday; wrote the Net of Faith (Sit Wiry), a discourse on the 13th chapter of Revelation, of the beast and its image (O Selme

treats of the duties of a king with regard to the public welfare; the second, on his personal behavior; the third is a general view of history, from the beginning of the world to the time of the author, wherein frequent hints are given, as to what a king should do, and what avoid. William Cornelius of Wsehrd wrote nine books on the laws, judiciary offices and the register of lands in Bohemia. King George was the author of an ordinance respecting measures, money, weights, &c. V. Mladienowic, who, when notary at Constance, was an eye-witness of the execution of Huss, wrote an account of his life. This used to be read in the Bohemian churches. Procopius continued the rhyming chronicles of Dalemil. J. Lodkowic related his Journey to the Holy Sepulchre. Sasek of Mezyhor wrote Notes and Travels through Germany, England, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy, of the Bohemian baron Loew of Rozmital and Vlatna (whom he accompanied); a contribution

to our knowledge of the manners of the 15th century, which was published by Jos. Edm. Horky, in a German translation printed at Brúnn, 1824. M. Gallus, Albjk, Chrislan, Zidek, J. Cerny, J. Blowic and Sindel, wrote on medicine, astrology and agriculture. As early as 1447, we have an anonymous work on the grafting of trees. We have also the rhyming legend of the 10,000 knights, a translation of the fables of Æsop, the council of the beasts and birds, in prose and verse, in 3 vols. (Placj Rada). Each lesson, which flows in rhyme from the mouths of the animals, is preceded by the natural history of the animals and the moral. It was printed three times in the Bohemian language, and published at Cracow in Latin verse, 1521, 4to. There is, likewise, a satire, in 132 verses, on the persecution of the priests of the Taborites; the Maitraum of Hynek of Podiebrad, the younger son of king George; besides several vocabularies and romances, among which is Tkadlecek, which has been published at Vienna, in a German translation. Of the Bible, 14 translations have come down to us, besides 10 of the New Testament. The oldest, of the year 1400, is in Dresden. The typographic art made a rapid progress in Bohemia. The first printed work was the epistle of Huss from Constance, in 1459; the second, the Trojan War, in 1468; the third, a New Testament, in 1474; the whole Bible, in 1488; the first almanac, in 1489.-The third age, from 1500 to 1620, may be called the golden age of the Bohemian language. During those dreadful tumults, in which, not only in this kingdom, but also in the neighboring countries, populous cities became heaps of ashes, and innumerable villages entirely disappeared, the peculiar inclination of the nation to investigation, and their predilection for science and art, developed themselves. The cultivation of learning-in other countries, with only a few exceptions, the monopoly of the clergy-was, in this favoured land, open to the whole nation. All branches of science were elaborated, and brought to an uncommonly high degree of improvement for that time. The purpose of this work does not allow us to enumerate all the authors of this age, since, under Rodolph II alone, there were more than 150. Gregory Hruby of Geleni translated the work of Petrarch, De Remediis utriusque Fortuna. W. Pisecky translated from the Greek the Exhortation of Isocrates to Demonikos. John Ames Comenius wrote

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54 works, some of which were very excellent. He published his Janua and an Orbis Pictus, which were translated, in his lifetime, into 11 languages, have passed through innumerable editions, and are not yet surpassed. In all the north of Europe, Comenius attracted attention by his projects for improving education, which were deliberated upon even by the diet of Sweden and the parliament of England. The hymns of this and the earlier ages, part of which have been translated by Luther, may serve as standards for all languages. In Prague alone, there were, at this period, 18 printing-presses; in the country-towns of B. 7, and in Moravia also 7: many Bohemian books, too, were printed in foreign countries, as in Venice, Nüremberg, Holland, Poland, Dresden, Wittenberg and Leipsic.-The fourth period begins with 1620, and ends with 1774. After the battle at the White mountain, the whole Bohemian nation submitted entirely to the conqueror. The population of most of the cities and of whole districts migrated, in order not to be false to their faith. More than 70,000 men, and almost the whole of the nobility, all the Protestant clergy, scholars and artists, in general, the most cultivated part of the nation, left their native country. Of these emigrants, the greater part formed the flower of the army of count Mansfeld. Hence the 30 years' war depopulated Bohemia more than any other country, since these fugitives endeavored to regain their native country by repeated invasions. Nothing, however, was so disadvantageous to Bohemian literature as the introduction of monks, who were mostly Italians, Spaniards and Southern Germans, who condemned every Bohemian work, as heretical, to the flames, so that individuals boasted of having burnt about 60,000 manuscripts, which they took from the people by force, after searching their houses. Such works as escaped the flames were shut up in monasteries, in carefully-secured rooms, fastened with iron grates, doors, locks, bolts and chains, and often inscribed with the warning title Hell. Instead of these excellent remains of the classical times of the country, they gave the Bohemians nonsense of all kinds; accounts of hell and purgatory, the reading of which made many of the populace maniacs; though even this stuff was, in many cases, burnt, and mostly forbidden. The fugitives established at Amsterdam, Dresden, Berlin, Breslau and Halle, printingpresses, and sent to their brethren in

Bohemia, Moravia and Hungary, a number of books, mostly new editions. Some Bohemians, who observed the decay of their language, strove to remedy it; as Pesina Z. Cechorodu; Joh. Beckowsky, who continued the Bohemian history to 1620; W. Weseley, who wrote a work on geometry and trigonometry, &c.; but the decay was too great to adinit of being checked; the nobility had become strangers, and the government encouraged only German literature. From this time, therefore, the Bohemians wrote more in the German language. In the fifth period, from 1774 to 1826, a new ray of hope shone on Bohemian literature; when, under the emperor Joseph I1, a deputation of secret Bohemian Protestants, trusting to his liberal views, made him acquainted with the great number of their brethren of the same faith. He perceived the necessity of introducing_toleration, and hundreds of thousands of Protestants, in Bohemia and Moravia, came to light: their concealed works were printed anew, their classical language was again acknowledged and cultivated. This is done still more under the present government, who perceive the necessity and utility of the Sclavonian language, which, in the Austrian states, is spoken by 14,000,000 people, and of which the Bohemian is the written dialect. Under this protection, many men of merit, mindful of the fame of their ancestors, have endeavored to cultivate anew all branches of the sciences, and to reach, if possible, their more advanced neighbors. In particular, the members of the Bohemian society of sciences, of the national museum, and of other patriotic societies, above all, count Kollowrath-Liebsteinsky and count Caspar of Sternberg, deserve to be named with high respect.-The Bohemian has natural talents for mathematics, as Copernicus, Vega, Strnad, Wydra, Littrow, &c., may prove. The corps of Austrian artillery, which are recruited in Bohemia and Moravia, have always contained men distinguished for acquaintance with this science. In philology and music, the Bohemians are likewise eminent. The teacher of Mozart was Kluck, a Boheinian. Recently, Adlabert Sedlaczek, canon of a chapter of the Præmonstratenses, has distinguished himself by physical and mathematical compendiums in the Bohemian language. Compare the Vollständige Böhnische Literatur of professor Jungmann (Prague, 1825, 2 vols.).

BOIARDO, Matteo Maria, count of Scan

diano, was born at a seat belonging to his family near Ferrara, in 1434. From 1488 to 1494, the period of his death, he was commander of the city and castle of Reggio, in the service of his protector, Ercole d'Este, duke of Modena. This accomplished courtier, scholar and knight was particularly distinguished as a poet. His Orlando Innamorato (Scandiano, 1496) is continued to the 79th canto, but not completed. He immortalized the names of his own peasants, and the charms of the scenery at Scandiano, in the persons of his heroes and his descriptions of the beauties of nature. In language and versification, he has been since surpassed by Ariosto, whom he equalled in invention, grace, and skilful conduct of complicated episodes. Dominichi, Berni and Agostini new modelled and continued the work of B. without improving it. One continuation, only, will never be forgotten-the immortal Orlando of Ariosto. In some of his works, B. was led, by the spirit of his times, to a close imitation of the ancients; e. g., in his Capitoli; also, in a comedy borrowed from Lucian's Timon; and in his Latin eclogues and translations of Herodotus and Apuleius. In his sonnets and canzoni (first printed at Reggio, 1499), he has displayed great talents as a lyric poet.

BOIL; to heat a fluid until it bubbles and becomes changed into vapor. If the requisite heat is applied a sufficient time, bubbles continually arise, until the fluid is entirely consumed. A singular circumstance is to be remarked, that the fluid, in open vessels, when it has once begun to boil, receives no increase of heat, even from the hottest fire. The reason is this, that the additional caloric goes to form steam, and ascends with it into the air. The steam itself, when formed, may be raised to a much higher degree of temperature. During the period of boiling, the surface of the fluid exhibits a violent undulating motion, and the stratum of air immediately over it is filled with vapor. The noise which accompanies boiling, arises, without doubt, from the displacing of the steam-bubbles, and varies very much with the nature and situation of the vessel. The vaporization of fluids is, very probably, nothing more than a mechanical union of caloric with the fluid. The degree of heat at which different fluids boil is very different. Spirits boil at the lowest temperature; pure water next; at a still higher temperature, the fixed oils. The degree of heat at which a fluid boils is called its boiling point.