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BURYING-PLACES-BUSCHING.

themselves in the air. On the occasion of opening such sepulchral vaults, those who stood near them have sometimes fallen dead on the spot, and no one could venture into the church, for a long time after, without exposing himself to dangerous consequences. At present, the burying in churches is almost everywhere suppressed, or, at least, permitted only under certain restrictions. Even in Naples and Rome, the general practice of erecting sepulchres in churches was forbidden in 1809, and the foundation of burial-places without the city was provided for. The custom of the communities of Moravian Brothers, who form their burial-places into gardens, is worthy of imitation. Several Catholic church-yards in Germany are also distinguished by their pleasing aspect; for instance, one in Múnich, where every grave is covered with a bed of flowers, which the relations of the deceased water from a fountain } dug for the purpose. The Quakers, it is well known, erect no tomb-stones. The beautiful name of the German Moravian Brothers, friedhof, or field of peace, is becoming more and more common in Germany. The celebrated burying-place of Pere la Chaise, near Paris, is one of the most beautiful and interesting spots in the world.

BUSACO; a convent in Portugal, in the province of Beira. The monks are Carinelites, and the prospect from the sumnit of the Sierra de Busaco is one of the finest in Portugal. It is memorable for the battle, Sept. 27, 1810, between Massena and lord Wellington, who, on a retreat before the superior forces of the former, availed himself of the favorable position of the Sierra for checking the pursuit. Two attacks, one on the right wing, consisting of British, and the other on the left, composed chiefly of Portuguose, were repulsed; but, Massena having detached a force to march round the mountain, and cut off the British troops from Coimbra, Wellington retreated towards that city, and afterwards to the lines of Torres Vedras. (q. v.)

BUSBECQ, or BUSBEQUIUS, Augier Ghislen; the natural son of a nobleman; born in 1522, at Comines, in Flanders; legitimated by Charles V. After having studied in the most celebrated universities of Flanders, France and Italy, he accompanied Peter Lassa, ambassador of Ferdinand, king of the Romans, to England. In the next year (1555), that prince made him his ambassador to Soliman II. His first negotiation was not very suc

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cessful. He obtained only an armistice for six months, and a letter, which he delivered immediately to Ferdinand. He then returned to his post, and this time his negotiations were completely successful. After seven years, he returned home, and was made tutor of the sons of Maximilian II. When this prince became emperor, B. was sent to accompany the archduchess Elizabeth (who was to be married to Charles IX) on her journey to France. B. remained there in the character of steward with Elizabeth, and, when she left France, after the death of her husband, he continued there as ambassador of Rodolph II. In 1592, he set out on his return to Flanders, and was attacked, on the way, by a party of the Leaguers. As soon as they had seen his passports, they permitted him to continue his journey unmolested, from_respect to his character of an ambassador; but the terror which he had suffered threw him into a violent fever, of which he died several days afterwards. We have remaining two important_works of his :-1. Legationis Turcica Epistolæ quatuor, in which the policy, the power and the weakness of the Porte are so profoundly and clearly explained, that, even at present, information may be drawn from them; and, 2. Epistola ad Rudolphum II, Imp. e Gallia scripta (edita a Houwaert), a very important work for the history of those times. His style is pure, elegant and simple. During his stay in Turkey, he collected Greek inscriptions, which he communicated to Andreas Schott, Justus Lipsius and Gruter. We are indebted to him for a copy of the celebrated monumentum Ancyranum, which he had transcribed and brought to Europe. More than a hundred Greek manuscripts, which he had collected, were presented by him to the library of Vienna.

BÜSCHING, Anthony Frederic; born, 1724, in Stadthagen, in Lippe; studied theology in Halle, in 1744, where he found a friend and protector in Baumgarten. On his travels, as tutor of the young count of Lynar, he became convinced of the defects of existing geographical treatises, and resolved to write a new one, which he began, on his return to Germany (1752), by publishing a short Description of Sleswic and Holstein, as a specimen. In 1754, he was made professor of philosophy in Göttingen. In 1755, he married Christiana Diltey, a lady who was remarkable as a member of the Göttingen learned society. Notwithstanding some difficulties about his hete

rodox opinions, he received an invitation to become pastor in a Lutheran church at Petersburg. In 1766, he was made director of the united gymnasiums of Berlin and of the suburb Köln, and discharged his duties with great diligence. He died in 1793. He is chiefly distinguished as a geographer. Before his great work, Allgemeine Erdbeschreibung, which he began to publish in 1754, in separate volumes, and which, though not entirely completed by the author, passed through eight legal editions during his life, neither the Germans nor any other nation had a thoroughly scientific geographical work.

BUSEMBAUM, Hermann, a Jesuit, famous for his Medulla Theologia moralis, ex variis probatisque Auctoribus concinnata, born at Nottelen, in Westphalia, 1600, rector of the Jesuits' colleges at Hildesheim and Münster, died in 1668. His work was much used in the seminaries of the Jesuits, and had passed through 50 editions, when father Lacroix published it, increased from a single duodecimo to two folios by his own commentaries and the additions of father Collendall. It was published at Lyons, in 1729, with further additions by father Montausan. The latter edition was reprinted, in 1758, at Cologne. It was now found to contain principles concerning homicide and regicide, which appeared the more reprehensible on account of the recent attempt on the life of Louis XV, by Damiens. The parliament of Toulouse caused the work to be publicly burnt, and summoned the superiors of the Jesuits to appear at their bar for trial. They disavowed the doctrines of the book, declared themselves ignorant of the author, and denied that any Jesuit had any share in it. The parliament of Paris was satisfied with condemning the book. Against both these sentences, father Zacharia, an Italjan Jesuit, with the permission of his superiors, stepped forward as the defender of B. and Lacroix; but his defence was. condemned by the parliament of Paris. B. was also the author of Lilium inter Spinas, de Virginibus Deo devotis eique in Sæculo inservientibus.

BUSHEL; an English dry measure, containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It is also used in the North American U. States. The standard English bushel (12 Henry VII) contains 8 gallons of wheat, each of 8 pounds troy, each of 12 ounces, each of 20 pennyweights, each of 32 corns of wheat that grew in the middle of the ear. In 1696, a duty being laid upon malt, it

became necessary to ascertain the exact contents of the Winchester bushel, as that of Henry VII was called. It was found that the capacity was 2151.7 cubic inches of pure water, equivalent to 1131 oz., 13 dwts. troy. (See J. Q. Adams's Report upon Weights and Measures, Washington, 1821.) The capacity of the Imperial bushel, prescribed by the act of uniformity (5 Geo. IV, c. 74), which took effect Jan. 1, 1826, is, for coal, potatoes, fruits, and other goods sold by heaped measure, 2815 cubic inches, the goods to be heaped up in the form of a cone, to a height above the rim of the measure of at least three fourths of its depth. The imperial bushel for all liquids, and for corn and other dry goods not heaped, contains 2218.20 cubic inches, and holds 80 lbs. avoirdupois of pure water.

BUSHIRE, OF ABUSHEHR; the principal seaport of Persia, situated on the Persian gulf, with 5000 inhabitants. The principal exports are carpets, wine of Shiraz, rose-water, drugs, pearls and cotton. The English East India company have a factory here. Lon. 50° 43′ E.; lat. 28° 59 N.

BUSHMEN, or BOSHMEN; the common name of that wild race of people, who dwell in the western part of South Africa, in the immense plains bordering on the north side of the colony of the cape of Good Hope, and are lost in the unknown regions of the interior. Janssens, formerly Dutch governor at the cape, gives the following account of them:-The Bushmen are a wild, rude, cruel and miserable people. So far from forming a nation, they do not even form societies. They live together in single families, and unite in great numbers only for defence or for pillage. They do not cultivate the land, and have no domestic animals except the dog. Their usual food is locusts. They endure hunger for a long time, but indemnify themselves by their voracity if they are so fortunate as to kill any wild game, or steal an ox or a sheep. They are entirely destitute of huts and household furniture. The scorching heaven is their tent, and the hot sand their bed. Their weapons consist of a small bov and poisoned arrows, which they shoot, with astonishing accuracy, to a great distance. Their language is exceedingly poor. It consists of a certain rattling with the tongue, and harsh, gurgling tones, for which we have no letters. They are, for the most part, of low stature; their skin is of a dark-yellow; and their hair, which resembles wool, is twist

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BUSHMEN-BUSTARD.

ed together in small tufts. (See Hotten=tots.)

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BUSHWANAS, or BOSHUANAS, or BETJOUANAS; an African people, occupying the country lying between 20° and 250 ES. latitude, divided into several tribes. Though under the government of sepa@rate chiefs, who are often at war with each other, these tribes are united by language, manners and customs. Less tall = than the Caffres, and as well proportioned, their form is even more elegant. Their skin is of a brown tint, between the shining black of the Negro and the yellow color of the Hottentots. They surpass the Caffres in civilization and the arts of life. Some of their towns are considera=ble. Kurechanee was visited by Campbell in 1821, who estimated the population at 16,000. Inoculation for the smallè pox is practised there. Old and New Leetakoo contain each 4000 inhabitants. The Bushwanas are inquisitive and intelligent; without any settled occupation, yet always active. Their principal food is the curds of milk and the produce of the chase: they rarely kill cattle, and have an invincible aversion to fish. The ashes in which their meat is cooked serve them for salt. Their clothes are made of the skins of animals: the women cover the breast, and leave the belly exposed. Their ornaments are rings and bracelets of ivory and brass. Their houses are light, clean, airy, and generally of a circular form. They are very skilful in tempering iron, and making their arms, which consist of a hassagay (javelin), a shield and a club. Polygamy is established among them; a young man buys a wife for 10 or 12 oxen: her first business is to build a house, for which she fells the necessary quantity of wood. The erection of the stable, the cultivation of the fields, and all the household work, falls to her. As soon as he can afford it, the Bushwana buys a second wife, who, in like manner, must build a house and stable, and cultivate a piece of ground. Honesty, loyalty and courage are the highest virtues, in their estimation. They have an idea of a soul, and believe in an invisible Lord of nature, the sovereign Dispenser of good and evil, whom they call Mourimo. Their principal ceremonies are circumcision and the blessing of cattle. They divide the year into 13 lunar months, and distinguish the planets from the fixed stars. Christianity has been introduced among them by missionaries, and with it some degree of civilization.

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BUSKIN (in Greek and Latin, cothurnus); a kind of high shoe worn upon the stage, by the ancient actors of tragedy, in order to give them a more heroic appearance. It was introduced by Sophocles, and, from this use, the word is figuratively employed, by the classic authors, for tragedy itself (Juvenal, xv. 29), or for a lofty and elevated style (grande munus Cecropio cothurno, Hor. Öd. ii. 1, 12). The buskin was also worn, by both sexes, particularly by the ladies, for ornament (Juv. vi. 505). The Melpomene in the Villa Borghese has the buskin. Hunters and soldiers used a different kind, resembling the half-boot.

BUST (Italian, il busto, from the Latin bustum), in sculpture; the representation of that portion of the human figure, which comprises the head and the upper part of the body. Busts are of different extent: 1. such as consist of the head, the upper part of the neck, and the upper part of the shoulders; 2. heads with the upper part of the chest, to the end of the breastbone (busts properly so called); and, 3. heads with the whole chest to the middle of the body, often to the hips. Between the bust and its pedestal is sometimes a column, or a square prop; such a bust is called Herme. The figure is sometimes in relief. The origin of the bust may be derived from the Herme, and from the custom of the Greeks and Romans to decorate their shields with portraits, and their vestibules with the images of their ancestors. Busts were afterwards used for the images of their gods, as being less expensive. The greater part have been found in Rome and Italy. Some remarkable

ones have been obtained from Herculaneum, in bronze. The chief difficulty in the execution of busts arises from this circumstance, that we are accustomed to estimate the size of the head by comparing it with the whole body. In a bust, therefore, the head appears disproportionately large, and the artist is obliged to yield, in some measure, to this ocular deception, by lessening its natural proportion.

BUSTARD; the trivial name of a species of wader belonging to the genus otis, L., and to the family pressirostres, C. The great bustard (otis tarda, L.) is the largest of European land-birds, the male weighing, on an average, 25 pounds. It is four feet in length, and measures nine feet from tip to tip of the wings. The head and neck are ash-colored, and there is a tuft of feathers about five inches long on each side of the lower mandible. The

back is transversely barred with black and bright ferruginous colors, and the primaries are black. The tail consists of 20 feathers, broadly barred with red and black. The belly is white, the legs dusky, naked, and without a hind toe. The female is but half the size of the male, and has the crown of the head of a deep orange color, traversed by red lines; the remainder of the head is brown. She otherwise resembles the male, except that the color of her plumage is less bright. This species is found in most of the open and level countries of the south and east of England, where they are occasionally seen, in autumn, in flocks of 50 and upwards. They are very shy and vigilant, and by no means easy to shoot. They run with great speed, and aid their course with their wings, like the ostrich. Although they rise on the wing with difficulty, they are said to fly many miles without resting. They feed on grain, seeds, worms, &c., and lay two eggs, as large as those of a goose: these are of a pale olive tint, with dark spots. The nest is merely a hole scraped in the earth. They do not wander far from their accustomed haunts, seldom going to a greater distance than 20 or 30 miles. Their flesh is considered fine eating.

BUTCHERS have been much the same in all ages and countries, and we know not of any great improvements that modern art or science has introduced into the practice of slaughtering animals. The ancient Scythians, and their Tartar descendants, seem to be peculiar in their taste for horse-flesh. The Romans appear to have loved beef, and veal, and mutton, as well as the modern Europeans and their American descendants: cara omnia, is the complaint of the old comic writer, agninam caram, caram bubulam, vitulinam, porcinam, omnia cara. In Paris, the butcheries, formerly receptacles of filth, and injurious to health, were remov-. ed by Napoleon, in 1809, to the outskirts of the city. They are called abattoirs (abattre, to fell), and consist of spacious buildings for the reception of the cattle, preparing the tripe, tallow, &c, and reservoirs of water for the service of the establishments. Of these there are five, in which are slaughtered annually 75,000 black cattle, with a proportionate number of sheep, &c. The larger animals are felled by a blow on the head, and the jugular vein is immediately separated with a knife. The flesh is then blown (gonflé), by injecting air into the vessels through a bellows, which gives it a plump appear

ance. Every part of the animal-bones, horns, hoofs, blood, intestines, hide, tallow-is used for the fabrication of glue, jelly, Prussian blue, sal-ammoniac, &c. In London, the carcass butchers kill the meat, and sell it out in great quantities; the retail butchers sell it out to the consumers. The average number of oxen sold at Smithfield annually is 156,000; sheep and lambs, 1,500,000; calves, 22,000; hogs, 20,000. The Jews in London have their own butchers, who are licensed by the rabbis. They cut the throats of the animals, never knocking them down, according to the usual practice. In some countries, the method of slaughtering cattle by penetrating the spinal marrow is practised.

BUTE; a small island of Scotland, lying at the mouth of the Clyde, with an area of 29,000 acres, belonging principally to the marquis of Bute. The climate is moist and mild. The herring fishery is a profitable employment. The only town is Rothesay, the ruins of the castle of which, formerly inhabited by the Scottish monarchs, still remain. It gave the title of duke of Rothesay to the heir apparent of Scotland. The title is now transferred to the prince of Wales.

BUTE (John Stuart) earl of; a British statesman, born in the beginning of the 18th century, in Scotland. His ancestors had been elevated to the peerage in 1703, and were connected with the old kings of Scotland. In his youth, B. seemed devoted to pleasure, and little inclined to engage in politics; nevertheless, in 1737, after the death of a Scottish peer, he was chosen to fill his seat in parliament. In consequence of his opposition to the measures of the ministry, he was left out when a new parliament was convened, in 1741. Offended by this neglect, B. retired to his estates, and lived there, wholly secluded, till the landing of the Pretender in Scotland, 1745, induced him to go to London, and offer his services to the government. Notwithstanding this manifestation of zeal, he would not have been brought forward again, if he had not attracted the notice of the prince of Wales, at an exhibition of private theatricals, in consequence of which he was invited to the court. Here he soon gained influence, and succeeded in making himself indispensable to the prince. At his death, in 1751, he was appointed, by the widowed princess, chamberlain to her son, and was intrusted by her with his education. B. never lost sight of his pupil, and possessed so much more influence with the princess

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of Wales than her son's particular tutors, the earl of Harcourt and the bishop of Norwich, that they resigned their offices. Lord Waldegrave and the bishop of Lincoln, who were chosen in their stead, opposed him unsuccessfully. George II died Oct. 25, 1760, and, two days after, B. was appointed member of the privy council. In March, 1761, the parliament was dissolved. B. was made secretary of state, in the place of lord Holderness, and appointed Charles Jenkinson, afterwards lord Hawkesbury and earl of Liverpool, his under-secretary. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer, was removed. Pitt (the great Chatham), who saw his influence in the new council annihilated, gave in his resignation the same year. This event made an unfavorable impression on the nation; but B., possessing the unbounded confidence of his king, stood at the head of the state. Soon after, he removed the old duke of Newcastle, then first lord of the treasury, and the only one of the former ministry remaining in office, and immediately took this important post upon himself, receiving, at the same time, the order of the garter. After a severe contest in parliament, he concluded a peace with France. The terms for England were perhaps not disproportionate to the successes obtained during the war; but it was disgraceful that the king of Prussia, in violation of former treaties, should have been left to his fate. B. was obliged to hear the most bitter reproaches; yet he succeeded in winning the popular favor, and every thing seemed to promise the power of the minister a long continuance. He had rendered the whigs objects of -suspicion to the king, and excluded them from the administration; on the contrary, he favored the tories, even the former Jacobites, and thus surrounded the king with persons whose principles coincided with his own, especially with his Scotch countrymen. The people murmured, and numberless pamphlets attacked the minister with bitterness, who was slowly gaining the confidence of the public, when new causes of dissatisfaction produced a great irritation against him. To discharge the debt contracted by the war, he was obliged to negotiate a loan, the interest of which was to be paid by a tax on cider, perry, &c. In spite of the opposition, the bill passed both houses. The city of London in vain petitioned the king to refuse his consent. The influence of B. seemed unbounded, when it was made known, contrary to expectation, that he had resigned his office as prime minister,

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and was, in future, to live as a private man. George Grenville succeeded him in the ministry. B. soon perceived the weakness of the administration, and endeavored to unite himself with Pitt. The plan failed, and the exasperation of the people was redoubled. B. was still considered as the soul of the royal resolutions, and particularly as the author of the stamp act, which kindled the first flame of discord between Great Britain and the North American colonies. Certain it is, that his friends spoke zealously against its repeal. Those ministers who did not support B.'s views were removed. His adherents, who called themselves friends of the king, formed a powerful party. They were stigmatized with the old name of cabal, and were denounced as the authors of all the present evils. In 1766, B. declared, in the house of lords, that he had wholly withdrawn from public business, and no longer saw the king; still it was not doubted that his great influence continued. On the death of the princess of Wales, 1772, he seems first to have given up all participation in the affairs of government. The public hatred towards him ceased, and he was forgotten. He spent his last years on his estate. A costly botanical garden, a library of 30,000 volumes, excellent astronomical, philosophical and mathematical instruments, afforded him occupation. His favorite study was botany, with which he was intimately acquainted. For the queen of England, he wrote the Botanical Register, which contained all the different kinds of plants in Great Britain (9 vols., 4to.). This work is remarkable, both for its splendor, in which it excels all former botanical works, and for its rarity. Only 12 copies were printed, at an expense of more than £10,000 sterling. B. died in 1792. He had more pretension than ability. By engaging in politics, for which he had neither talent nor knowledge, he lost his own quiet, and his imprudent measures brought trouble and confusion on the nation. He was reproached with haughtiness; but this was the fault of a noble spirit; and he steadily refused, during his ministry, to employ venal writers. Distrustful and reserved, he has been described as harsh, imperious and obstinate; yet he was generally irresolute, and even timid. His morals were irreproachable. In private life, he displayed an amiable simplicity.

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BUTLER, James, duke of Ormond; an eminent statesman in the reigns of Charles I and II. He was born at London; suc

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